Food and Wines-Part 2.
Why do whiskies produced in different distilleries vary in flavour?
This again is a question which it is very difficult to answer with certainty. Most people would agree that the water used is the decisive factor. Adjoining distilleries which draw their water from different sources are known to produce whiskies that are quite dissimilar in flavour.
The size and shape of the stills are also important as are the skill and experience of the men who manage them. It is the objective of the distiller to produce a whisky whose flavour and character remain consistent at all times and in all circumstances. This is the true art of distilling, acquired only after many years and often handed down from one generation to the next.
How many distilleries are there?
There are around 100 Pot Still Malt distilleries and Grain, or Patent Still, distilleries in Scotland; but the number working can vary from year to year.
Can Scotch Whisky be made only in Scotland?
Yes. Many other products which were originally manufactured only in a particular locality have lost their geographical significance and can now be manufactured anywhere. The word ‘Scotch’, however, as applied to whisky, has retained its geographical significance. This is widely recognised in law throughout the world. Thus, whisky may be described as Scotch Whisky only if it has been wholly distilled and matured in Scotland for a minimum of 3 years.
If you could duplicate exactly a Scotch Whisky distillery in, say, Brazil or Spain, could you produce Scotch?
No. For the reason given in the preceding answer, whisky can be called ‘Scotch’ only if it is distilled and matured in Scotland. Whisky produced in Brazil is ‘Brazilian Whisky’ or in Spain ‘Spanish Whisky’. Attempts have been made to copy the unique flavour of Scotch Whiskies in many parts of the world, but with no success whatsoever.
What is blending? What is its purpose?
A number of distilleries bottle and sell some of the whisky they distil for consumption as single or unblended whiskies. By far the greater part of their production, however, is used for the well-known blended Scotch Whiskies that are sold all over the world.
Blending whisky is a considerable art acquired only after years of experience.
A blend will consist of anything from 15 to 50 different single whiskies, combined in the proportions of a formula that is the secret of the blending company concerned.
Whiskies from different distilleries have a character of their own and, just as people of different temperaments are often incompatible, so some whiskies will not blend happily with certain others. The Malts and Grains in a blend must therefore, be chosen to complement and enhance their respective flavours. Blending is in no sense a dilution. The blender's task is to combine different single whiskies, to produce a blend which brings out the best qualities of each of its constituent parts.
The aim of the blender is first to produce a whisky of a definite and recognisable character.
It is of the greatest importance that his blend should never vary from this standard, which his customers all over the world will have come to expect. His second aim is, therefore, to achieve consistency.
The blender must also decide when the different single whiskies are ready to be used in his blend. They are brought from the warehouse where they have been maturing to the blending establishment, where they are mixed together in a blending vat. They are usually returned to cask and left to ‘marry’ for a period of months, before bottling. Some companies prefer to vat their Malts and Grains separately and only bring the two together before bottling.
The combining of Malt with Malt or Grain with Grain is known as vatting.
When was blending introduced?
Blending was pioneered by Andrew Usher in Edinburgh in the early 1860s. It was only after this practice became common that a taste for Scotch Whisky spread first to England and then throughout the world.
The reason for this was that Pot Still Malt Whisky was inclined to be too strongly flavoured for everyday drinking, especially by people in sedentary occupations and warm climates. By combining Malt Whisky with Grain Whisky, which has less pronounced characteristics, the demand for a whisky that is milder in flavour and more suited to the conditions of modern life can be met.
What is the percentage of Malt and Grain Whiskies in blended Scotch Whisky?
There is no fixed percentage and the proportion differs from one blender to another. No brand owner is willing to reveal the proportions of the different whiskies used, but the blender determines the proportion according to the character he is seeking for his blend. This character is determined not only by the proportions of Malt and Grain Whisky which it contains, but also by factors such as the ages of the individual whiskies and the manner in which they combine to bring out the finest qualities in each other.
This again is a question which it is very difficult to answer with certainty. Most people would agree that the water used is the decisive factor. Adjoining distilleries which draw their water from different sources are known to produce whiskies that are quite dissimilar in flavour.
The size and shape of the stills are also important as are the skill and experience of the men who manage them. It is the objective of the distiller to produce a whisky whose flavour and character remain consistent at all times and in all circumstances. This is the true art of distilling, acquired only after many years and often handed down from one generation to the next.
How many distilleries are there?
There are around 100 Pot Still Malt distilleries and Grain, or Patent Still, distilleries in Scotland; but the number working can vary from year to year.
Can Scotch Whisky be made only in Scotland?
Yes. Many other products which were originally manufactured only in a particular locality have lost their geographical significance and can now be manufactured anywhere. The word ‘Scotch’, however, as applied to whisky, has retained its geographical significance. This is widely recognised in law throughout the world. Thus, whisky may be described as Scotch Whisky only if it has been wholly distilled and matured in Scotland for a minimum of 3 years.
If you could duplicate exactly a Scotch Whisky distillery in, say, Brazil or Spain, could you produce Scotch?
No. For the reason given in the preceding answer, whisky can be called ‘Scotch’ only if it is distilled and matured in Scotland. Whisky produced in Brazil is ‘Brazilian Whisky’ or in Spain ‘Spanish Whisky’. Attempts have been made to copy the unique flavour of Scotch Whiskies in many parts of the world, but with no success whatsoever.
What is blending? What is its purpose?
A number of distilleries bottle and sell some of the whisky they distil for consumption as single or unblended whiskies. By far the greater part of their production, however, is used for the well-known blended Scotch Whiskies that are sold all over the world.
Blending whisky is a considerable art acquired only after years of experience.
A blend will consist of anything from 15 to 50 different single whiskies, combined in the proportions of a formula that is the secret of the blending company concerned.
Whiskies from different distilleries have a character of their own and, just as people of different temperaments are often incompatible, so some whiskies will not blend happily with certain others. The Malts and Grains in a blend must therefore, be chosen to complement and enhance their respective flavours. Blending is in no sense a dilution. The blender's task is to combine different single whiskies, to produce a blend which brings out the best qualities of each of its constituent parts.
The aim of the blender is first to produce a whisky of a definite and recognisable character.
It is of the greatest importance that his blend should never vary from this standard, which his customers all over the world will have come to expect. His second aim is, therefore, to achieve consistency.
The blender must also decide when the different single whiskies are ready to be used in his blend. They are brought from the warehouse where they have been maturing to the blending establishment, where they are mixed together in a blending vat. They are usually returned to cask and left to ‘marry’ for a period of months, before bottling. Some companies prefer to vat their Malts and Grains separately and only bring the two together before bottling.
The combining of Malt with Malt or Grain with Grain is known as vatting.
When was blending introduced?
Blending was pioneered by Andrew Usher in Edinburgh in the early 1860s. It was only after this practice became common that a taste for Scotch Whisky spread first to England and then throughout the world.
The reason for this was that Pot Still Malt Whisky was inclined to be too strongly flavoured for everyday drinking, especially by people in sedentary occupations and warm climates. By combining Malt Whisky with Grain Whisky, which has less pronounced characteristics, the demand for a whisky that is milder in flavour and more suited to the conditions of modern life can be met.
What is the percentage of Malt and Grain Whiskies in blended Scotch Whisky?
There is no fixed percentage and the proportion differs from one blender to another. No brand owner is willing to reveal the proportions of the different whiskies used, but the blender determines the proportion according to the character he is seeking for his blend. This character is determined not only by the proportions of Malt and Grain Whisky which it contains, but also by factors such as the ages of the individual whiskies and the manner in which they combine to bring out the finest qualities in each other.
THE ART OF BLENDING
While the distinctive single malts produced by individual distilleries are becoming increasingly popular, blending creates over 90% of the Scotch whisky enjoyed throughout the world.
By nosing samples in tulip-shaped glasses the blender selects from a wide palate - from the numerous Highland and Speyside malts to the strongly flavoured and peaty Island malts, and the softer and lighter Lowland malts. These malts are combined with grain whiskies - usually 60-80% grain whiskies to 20-40% malt whiskies, and are then left to 'marry' in casks before being bottled as one of the world-renowned blended whiskies.
A blend of a range of malt whiskies, with no grain whisky included, is known as a vatted malt.
The way we make Scotch whisky has evolved over several centuries, but the history of Scotch whisky embraces a much wider heritage; that of Scotland and its people.
What are the main kinds of Scotch Whisky?
There are two kinds of Scotch Whisky - Malt Whisky and Grain Whisky. The Malt Whiskies are divided into four groups according to the geographical location of the distilleries in which they are made, as follows:
(1) Lowland Malt Whiskies, made south of an imaginary line drawn from Dundee in the east to Greenock in the west.
(2) Highland Malt Whiskies, made north of that line.
(3) Speyside Malt Whiskies, from the valley of the River Spey. Although these whiskies come from within the area designated as Highland Malt Whiskies, the concentration of distilleries and the specific climatic conditions produce a whisky of an identifiable character and require a separate classification.
(4) Islay Malt Whiskies, from the island of Islay.
Each group has its own clearly defined characteristics, ranging from the lighter Lowland Malt Whiskies to those distilled on Islay which are generally regarded as the heaviest Malt Whiskies.
Malt Whiskies, which differ considerably in flavour according to the distillery from which they come, have a more pronounced bouquet and flavour than the Grain Whiskies. The production of Grain Whisky is not so influenced by geographical factors and it may be distilled anywhere in Scotland.
What gives Scotch Whisky its distinctive flavour and bouquet?
This is one of the mysteries of the industry and a secret which many imitators of Scotch Whisky have tried in vain to discover. Many theories and explanations have been put forward, but there is no universally accepted solution.
The distilling process itself is one factor. Scotch Whisky, after it has been distilled, contains not only ethyl alcohol and water but certain secondary constituents. The exact nature of these is not fully understood, but it is believed they include some of the essential oils from the malted barley and other cereals and substances that derive from the peat. The amount of these secondary constituents retained in the spirit depends upon the shape of the still and the way it is operated and also on the strength at which the spirit is drawn off. Grain Whisky, because of the process by which it is made, contains fewer secondary constituents than Malt Whisky and is accordingly milder in flavour and aroma.
The natural elements of water, peat and the Scottish climate all certainly have a profound effect on the flavour of Scotch Whisky. Water is probably the most important single factor and a source of good, soft water is essential to a distillery. Peat, which is used in the kiln or oven in which the malt is dried, also has an influence that can be detected in the ‘peaty’ or smoky flavour of many Scotch Whiskies.
The Scottish climate is extremely important, particularly when the whisky is maturing. At this stage the soft air permeates the casks and works on the whisky, eliminating harsher constituents to produce a mellow whisky.
While the distinctive single malts produced by individual distilleries are becoming increasingly popular, blending creates over 90% of the Scotch whisky enjoyed throughout the world.
By nosing samples in tulip-shaped glasses the blender selects from a wide palate - from the numerous Highland and Speyside malts to the strongly flavoured and peaty Island malts, and the softer and lighter Lowland malts. These malts are combined with grain whiskies - usually 60-80% grain whiskies to 20-40% malt whiskies, and are then left to 'marry' in casks before being bottled as one of the world-renowned blended whiskies.
A blend of a range of malt whiskies, with no grain whisky included, is known as a vatted malt.
The way we make Scotch whisky has evolved over several centuries, but the history of Scotch whisky embraces a much wider heritage; that of Scotland and its people.
What are the main kinds of Scotch Whisky?
There are two kinds of Scotch Whisky - Malt Whisky and Grain Whisky. The Malt Whiskies are divided into four groups according to the geographical location of the distilleries in which they are made, as follows:
(1) Lowland Malt Whiskies, made south of an imaginary line drawn from Dundee in the east to Greenock in the west.
(2) Highland Malt Whiskies, made north of that line.
(3) Speyside Malt Whiskies, from the valley of the River Spey. Although these whiskies come from within the area designated as Highland Malt Whiskies, the concentration of distilleries and the specific climatic conditions produce a whisky of an identifiable character and require a separate classification.
(4) Islay Malt Whiskies, from the island of Islay.
Each group has its own clearly defined characteristics, ranging from the lighter Lowland Malt Whiskies to those distilled on Islay which are generally regarded as the heaviest Malt Whiskies.
Malt Whiskies, which differ considerably in flavour according to the distillery from which they come, have a more pronounced bouquet and flavour than the Grain Whiskies. The production of Grain Whisky is not so influenced by geographical factors and it may be distilled anywhere in Scotland.
What gives Scotch Whisky its distinctive flavour and bouquet?
This is one of the mysteries of the industry and a secret which many imitators of Scotch Whisky have tried in vain to discover. Many theories and explanations have been put forward, but there is no universally accepted solution.
The distilling process itself is one factor. Scotch Whisky, after it has been distilled, contains not only ethyl alcohol and water but certain secondary constituents. The exact nature of these is not fully understood, but it is believed they include some of the essential oils from the malted barley and other cereals and substances that derive from the peat. The amount of these secondary constituents retained in the spirit depends upon the shape of the still and the way it is operated and also on the strength at which the spirit is drawn off. Grain Whisky, because of the process by which it is made, contains fewer secondary constituents than Malt Whisky and is accordingly milder in flavour and aroma.
The natural elements of water, peat and the Scottish climate all certainly have a profound effect on the flavour of Scotch Whisky. Water is probably the most important single factor and a source of good, soft water is essential to a distillery. Peat, which is used in the kiln or oven in which the malt is dried, also has an influence that can be detected in the ‘peaty’ or smoky flavour of many Scotch Whiskies.
The Scottish climate is extremely important, particularly when the whisky is maturing. At this stage the soft air permeates the casks and works on the whisky, eliminating harsher constituents to produce a mellow whisky.
5. Distillation
The wash is distilled twice - first in the wash still, to separate the alcohol from the water, yeast and residue called pot ale - the solids of which are also saved for use in animal feeds.
The distillate from the wash still, known as low wines, and containing about 20% alcohol by volume, then goes to the spirit still for the second distillation. The more volatile compounds which distil off first - the foreshots, and the final runnings called feints where more oily compounds are vaporized, are both channelled off to be redistilled when mixed with the low wines in the next batch.
Only the pure centre cut, or heart of the run, which is about 68% alcohol by volume is collected in the spirit receiver.
6. Spirit Safe
All the distillates pass through the spirit safe - whose locks were traditionally controlled by the Customs & Excise. The stillman uses all his years of experience to test and judge the various distillates without being able to come into physical contact with the spirit.
The newly distilled, colourless, fiery spirit reduced to maturing strength, 63% alcohol by volume, is filled into oak casks which may have previously contained Scotch whisky, bourbon or sherry, and the maturation process begins.
The wash is distilled twice - first in the wash still, to separate the alcohol from the water, yeast and residue called pot ale - the solids of which are also saved for use in animal feeds.
The distillate from the wash still, known as low wines, and containing about 20% alcohol by volume, then goes to the spirit still for the second distillation. The more volatile compounds which distil off first - the foreshots, and the final runnings called feints where more oily compounds are vaporized, are both channelled off to be redistilled when mixed with the low wines in the next batch.
Only the pure centre cut, or heart of the run, which is about 68% alcohol by volume is collected in the spirit receiver.
6. Spirit Safe
All the distillates pass through the spirit safe - whose locks were traditionally controlled by the Customs & Excise. The stillman uses all his years of experience to test and judge the various distillates without being able to come into physical contact with the spirit.
The newly distilled, colourless, fiery spirit reduced to maturing strength, 63% alcohol by volume, is filled into oak casks which may have previously contained Scotch whisky, bourbon or sherry, and the maturation process begins.
THE MAKING OF GRAIN WHISKY
1. Scotch grain whisky is usually made from 10-20% malted barley and then other unmalted cereals such as maize or wheat. The starch in the non-malted cereals is released by pre-cooking and converted into fermentable sugars. The mashing and fermentation processes are similar to those used for malt whisky.
2. The wash is distilled in a continuous or Coffey still, named after its inventor Aeneas Coffey. It has two tall columns - a rectifier and an analyser. Cold wash is pumped in at the top of the rectifier and meets steam. The columns in fact act like a heat exchanger. The alcohol is cooled, condenses and flows away as Scotch grain spirit at about 94% alcohol by volume.
3. The distilled grain spirit is lighter in character and aroma than most malt whiskies and therefore requires rather less time to mature. The bulk of matured grain whisky is used for blending.
1. Scotch grain whisky is usually made from 10-20% malted barley and then other unmalted cereals such as maize or wheat. The starch in the non-malted cereals is released by pre-cooking and converted into fermentable sugars. The mashing and fermentation processes are similar to those used for malt whisky.
2. The wash is distilled in a continuous or Coffey still, named after its inventor Aeneas Coffey. It has two tall columns - a rectifier and an analyser. Cold wash is pumped in at the top of the rectifier and meets steam. The columns in fact act like a heat exchanger. The alcohol is cooled, condenses and flows away as Scotch grain spirit at about 94% alcohol by volume.
3. The distilled grain spirit is lighter in character and aroma than most malt whiskies and therefore requires rather less time to mature. The bulk of matured grain whisky is used for blending.
THE MATURATION PROCESS
While maturing, the whisky becomes smoother, gains flavour, and draws its golden colour from the cask. A proportion of the higher alcohols turn into esters and other complex compounds which subtly enhance each whisky's distinctive characteristics.
By law all Scotch whisky must be matured for at least 3 years, but most single malts lie in the wood for 8, 10, 12, 15 years or longer. Customs & Excise allow for a maximum of 2% of the whisky to evaporate from the cask each year - the Angels' Share. Unlike wine, whisky does not mature further once it is in the bottle.
While maturing, the whisky becomes smoother, gains flavour, and draws its golden colour from the cask. A proportion of the higher alcohols turn into esters and other complex compounds which subtly enhance each whisky's distinctive characteristics.
By law all Scotch whisky must be matured for at least 3 years, but most single malts lie in the wood for 8, 10, 12, 15 years or longer. Customs & Excise allow for a maximum of 2% of the whisky to evaporate from the cask each year - the Angels' Share. Unlike wine, whisky does not mature further once it is in the bottle.
THE MAKING OF MALT WHISKY
The origins of malt whisky distilling in Scotland are lost in the mists of antiquity. They date back at least to the monks of the 15'" century and probably long before.
Although the distillers' art has been understood since earliest times, the subtle aromas and flavours of whisky have never been fully explained, even today. The ancient term using beatha, which is Gaelic for the Latin aqua vitae or 'water of life', was corrupted in the 18'" century to usky, and then to whisky. The following description is a generalisation of the process.
It should be remembered that each distillery has its own unique specifications.
1. Malting
Best quality barley is first steeped in water and then spread out on malting floors to germinate. It is turned regularly to prevent the build up of heat. Traditionally, this was done by tossing the barley into the air with wooden shovels in a malt barn adjacent to the kiln.
During this process enzymes are activated which convert the starch into sugar when mashing takes place. After 6 to 7 days of germination the barley, now called green malt, goes to the kiln for drying. This halts the germination. The heat is kept below 70°C so that the enzymes are not destroyed. Peat may be added to the fire to impart flavour from the smoke.
2. Mashing
The dried malt is ground into a coarse flour or grist, which is mixed with hot water in the mash tun. The water is added in 3 stages and gets hotter at each stage, starting around 67°C and rising to almost boiling point.
The quality of the pure Scottish water is important. The mash is stirred, helping to convert the starches to sugar. After mashing, the sweet sugary liquid is known as wort. The spent grains - the draff - is processed into cattle feed.
3. Fermentation
The wort is cooled to 20°C and pumped into washbacks, where yeast is added and fermentation begins. The living yeast feeds on the sugars, producing alcohol and small quantities of other compounds known as congeners, which contribute to the flavour of the whisky. Carbon dioxide is also produced and the wash froths violently. Revolving switchers cut the head to prevent it overflowing. After about 2 days the fermentation dies down and the wash contains 6-8% alcohol by volume.
4. Pot Stills
In some mysterious way the shape of the pot still affects the character of the individual malt whisky, and each distillery keeps its stills exactly the same over the years.
In distillation, the still is heated to just below the boiling point of water and the alcohol and other compounds vaporize and pass over the neck of the still into either a condenser or a worm - a large copper coil immersed in cold running water where the vapour is condensed into a liquid.
The origins of malt whisky distilling in Scotland are lost in the mists of antiquity. They date back at least to the monks of the 15'" century and probably long before.
Although the distillers' art has been understood since earliest times, the subtle aromas and flavours of whisky have never been fully explained, even today. The ancient term using beatha, which is Gaelic for the Latin aqua vitae or 'water of life', was corrupted in the 18'" century to usky, and then to whisky. The following description is a generalisation of the process.
It should be remembered that each distillery has its own unique specifications.
1. Malting
Best quality barley is first steeped in water and then spread out on malting floors to germinate. It is turned regularly to prevent the build up of heat. Traditionally, this was done by tossing the barley into the air with wooden shovels in a malt barn adjacent to the kiln.
During this process enzymes are activated which convert the starch into sugar when mashing takes place. After 6 to 7 days of germination the barley, now called green malt, goes to the kiln for drying. This halts the germination. The heat is kept below 70°C so that the enzymes are not destroyed. Peat may be added to the fire to impart flavour from the smoke.
2. Mashing
The dried malt is ground into a coarse flour or grist, which is mixed with hot water in the mash tun. The water is added in 3 stages and gets hotter at each stage, starting around 67°C and rising to almost boiling point.
The quality of the pure Scottish water is important. The mash is stirred, helping to convert the starches to sugar. After mashing, the sweet sugary liquid is known as wort. The spent grains - the draff - is processed into cattle feed.
3. Fermentation
The wort is cooled to 20°C and pumped into washbacks, where yeast is added and fermentation begins. The living yeast feeds on the sugars, producing alcohol and small quantities of other compounds known as congeners, which contribute to the flavour of the whisky. Carbon dioxide is also produced and the wash froths violently. Revolving switchers cut the head to prevent it overflowing. After about 2 days the fermentation dies down and the wash contains 6-8% alcohol by volume.
4. Pot Stills
In some mysterious way the shape of the pot still affects the character of the individual malt whisky, and each distillery keeps its stills exactly the same over the years.
In distillation, the still is heated to just below the boiling point of water and the alcohol and other compounds vaporize and pass over the neck of the still into either a condenser or a worm - a large copper coil immersed in cold running water where the vapour is condensed into a liquid.
What is draff?
Draff is the spent grain left in the mash-tun after the liquor, wort, has been drawn off. It represents, as a rule, about 25 per cent of the malt and unmalted cereals, if any, put into the mash-tun. Draff enjoys a large market as cattle food.
What are the principal by-products of Scotch Whisky?
The liquids and solids remaining after distillation are not wasted, nor are they allowed to pollute rivers or coastlines. In recent years the Scotch Whisky industry has invested heavily in developing methods of treating the residue of distillation so that it now makes an important contribution to the animal foodstuffs industry.
Most distilleries now possess by-products plants or, in the case of smaller distilleries in remote areas, send their waste material to the area plants which process it into dark grains. These are extremely rich in protein and are sold in palletised form to farmers who use them to enrich cattle food.
Grain Whisky distilleries usually recover the carbon dioxide produced during the fermentation stage. This has several applications in industry and in the production of soft drinks.
Draff is the spent grain left in the mash-tun after the liquor, wort, has been drawn off. It represents, as a rule, about 25 per cent of the malt and unmalted cereals, if any, put into the mash-tun. Draff enjoys a large market as cattle food.
What are the principal by-products of Scotch Whisky?
The liquids and solids remaining after distillation are not wasted, nor are they allowed to pollute rivers or coastlines. In recent years the Scotch Whisky industry has invested heavily in developing methods of treating the residue of distillation so that it now makes an important contribution to the animal foodstuffs industry.
Most distilleries now possess by-products plants or, in the case of smaller distilleries in remote areas, send their waste material to the area plants which process it into dark grains. These are extremely rich in protein and are sold in palletised form to farmers who use them to enrich cattle food.
Grain Whisky distilleries usually recover the carbon dioxide produced during the fermentation stage. This has several applications in industry and in the production of soft drinks.
What is meant by Under Bond and Duty Paid sales, respectively?
(a) Sales Under Bond are sales on which the Excise Duty has not been paid. The goods are consigned to a bonded duty-free warehouse.
(b) Sales Duty Paid are sales on which the Excise Duty has already been paid.
What is the origin of the name 'whisky'?
The term ‘whisky’ derives originally from the Gaelic ‘uisge beatha’, or ‘usquebaugh’, meaning ‘water of life’. Gaelic is that branch of Celtic spoken in the Highlands of Scotland.
(a) Sales Under Bond are sales on which the Excise Duty has not been paid. The goods are consigned to a bonded duty-free warehouse.
(b) Sales Duty Paid are sales on which the Excise Duty has already been paid.
What is the origin of the name 'whisky'?
The term ‘whisky’ derives originally from the Gaelic ‘uisge beatha’, or ‘usquebaugh’, meaning ‘water of life’. Gaelic is that branch of Celtic spoken in the Highlands of Scotland.
When was Scotch Whisky first distilled?
Whisky has been distilled in Scotland for hundreds of years. There is some evidence to show that the art of distilling could have been brought to the country by Christian missionary monks, but it has never been proved that Highland farmers did not themselves discover how to distil spirits from their surplus barley.
The earliest historical reference to whisky comes much later, Mr J Marshall Robb, in his book ‘Scotch Whisky’, says: ‘The oldest reference to whisky occurs in the Scottish Exchequer Rolls for 1494, where there is an entry of ‘eight bolls of malt to Friar John Cor wherewith to make aquavitae’. A boll was an old Scottish measure of not more than six bushels. (One bushel is equivalent to 25.4 kiIograms)
Whisky has been distilled in Scotland for hundreds of years. There is some evidence to show that the art of distilling could have been brought to the country by Christian missionary monks, but it has never been proved that Highland farmers did not themselves discover how to distil spirits from their surplus barley.
The earliest historical reference to whisky comes much later, Mr J Marshall Robb, in his book ‘Scotch Whisky’, says: ‘The oldest reference to whisky occurs in the Scottish Exchequer Rolls for 1494, where there is an entry of ‘eight bolls of malt to Friar John Cor wherewith to make aquavitae’. A boll was an old Scottish measure of not more than six bushels. (One bushel is equivalent to 25.4 kiIograms)
When King James IV was in Inverness during September 1506, his Treasurer’s Accounts had entries for the 15th and 17th of the month respectively: ‘For aqua vite to the King. . .’ and ‘For ane flacat of aqua vite to the King. . .’. lt is probable that the aquavitae in this case was spirit for drinking.
The earliest reference to a distillery in the Acts of the Scottish Parliament appears to be in 1690, when mention is made of the famous Ferintosh distillery owned by Duncan Forbes of Culloden.
There is also a reference to distilling in a private house in the parish of Gamrie in Banffshire in 1614. This occurs in the Register of the Privy Council, where a man accused of the crime of breaking into a private house, combined with assault, was said to have knocked over some ‘aquavitie’.
One of the earliest references to ‘uiskie’ occurs in the funeral account of a Highland laird about 1618.
An unpublished letter of February 1622, written by Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenorchy to the Earl of Mar, reported that certain officers sent to Glenorchy by the King had been given the best entertainment that the season and the country allowed. It stated: ‘For they wantit not wine nor aquavite.’ This ‘aquavite’ was no doubt locally distilled whisky.
Another writer affirms that aquavitae occasionally formed part of the rent paid for Highland farms, at any rate in Perthshire, but no actual date is given for this practice.
What is the history of charging duty on Scotch Whisky?
The Scots Parliament in 1644 passed an Excise Act fixing the duty at 2/8d (13p) per pint of aquavitae or other strong liquor - the Scots pint being approximately one third of a gallon. For the remainder of the 17th century various alterations were made to the types and amounts of duty collected.
After the Union of the Parliaments in 1707, English revenue staff crossed the border to begin their lengthy attempts to bring whisky production under control. Ninety years later the excise laws were in such a hopeless state of confusion that no two distilleries were taxed at the same rate. Illicit distilling flourished, the smugglers seeing no good reason for paying for the privilege of making their native drink.
After a lengthy Royal Commission, the Act of 1823 sanctioned legal distilling at a duty of 2/3d (12p) per gallon for stills with a capacity of more than 40 gallons. There was a licence fee of £10 annually and no stills under the legal limit were allowed. The first distillery came into ‘official’ existence in the following year and thereafter many of the more far-sighted distillers came over on to the side of the law.
In 1840, the duty was 5d (2.5p) per bottle and by the beginning of the First World War it had risen to 1/81/2d (9p). In 1939, a typical bottle of Scotch Whisky cost 14/3d (72p) of which 9/71/2d (48p) was duty. By 1992, after a succession of duty increases, the same bottle was costing around £10.80. The duty on it was £5.55, equivalent to £19.81 per litre of pure alcohol.
In 1995, for the first time in one hundred years, the tax on Scotch Whisky was reduced. Duty fell from £5.77 to £5.54 a bottle (70cl). In 1996, the tax on Scotch Whisky was again reduced.
Since 1973 the price of a bottle of whisky, including the Excise Duty, has been subject to a Value Added Tax. Scotch Whisky" The Water of Life
The earliest reference to a distillery in the Acts of the Scottish Parliament appears to be in 1690, when mention is made of the famous Ferintosh distillery owned by Duncan Forbes of Culloden.
There is also a reference to distilling in a private house in the parish of Gamrie in Banffshire in 1614. This occurs in the Register of the Privy Council, where a man accused of the crime of breaking into a private house, combined with assault, was said to have knocked over some ‘aquavitie’.
One of the earliest references to ‘uiskie’ occurs in the funeral account of a Highland laird about 1618.
An unpublished letter of February 1622, written by Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenorchy to the Earl of Mar, reported that certain officers sent to Glenorchy by the King had been given the best entertainment that the season and the country allowed. It stated: ‘For they wantit not wine nor aquavite.’ This ‘aquavite’ was no doubt locally distilled whisky.
Another writer affirms that aquavitae occasionally formed part of the rent paid for Highland farms, at any rate in Perthshire, but no actual date is given for this practice.
What is the history of charging duty on Scotch Whisky?
The Scots Parliament in 1644 passed an Excise Act fixing the duty at 2/8d (13p) per pint of aquavitae or other strong liquor - the Scots pint being approximately one third of a gallon. For the remainder of the 17th century various alterations were made to the types and amounts of duty collected.
After the Union of the Parliaments in 1707, English revenue staff crossed the border to begin their lengthy attempts to bring whisky production under control. Ninety years later the excise laws were in such a hopeless state of confusion that no two distilleries were taxed at the same rate. Illicit distilling flourished, the smugglers seeing no good reason for paying for the privilege of making their native drink.
After a lengthy Royal Commission, the Act of 1823 sanctioned legal distilling at a duty of 2/3d (12p) per gallon for stills with a capacity of more than 40 gallons. There was a licence fee of £10 annually and no stills under the legal limit were allowed. The first distillery came into ‘official’ existence in the following year and thereafter many of the more far-sighted distillers came over on to the side of the law.
In 1840, the duty was 5d (2.5p) per bottle and by the beginning of the First World War it had risen to 1/81/2d (9p). In 1939, a typical bottle of Scotch Whisky cost 14/3d (72p) of which 9/71/2d (48p) was duty. By 1992, after a succession of duty increases, the same bottle was costing around £10.80. The duty on it was £5.55, equivalent to £19.81 per litre of pure alcohol.
In 1995, for the first time in one hundred years, the tax on Scotch Whisky was reduced. Duty fell from £5.77 to £5.54 a bottle (70cl). In 1996, the tax on Scotch Whisky was again reduced.
Since 1973 the price of a bottle of whisky, including the Excise Duty, has been subject to a Value Added Tax. Scotch Whisky" The Water of Life
What is patent still distillation?
Unlike Malt Whisky, Grain Whisky is distilled in a continuous operation in a Patent Still. This is sometimes known as the Coffey Still, after Aeneas Coffey, who developed it in 1831.
Steam is fed into the base of the analyser and hot wash into the top. As the two meet on the surface of the perforated plates, the wash boils and a mixture of alcohol vapours and uncondensed steam rises to the top of the column. The spent wash runs down and is led off from the base.
The hot vapours enter the rectifier at the base and as they rise through the chambers they partially condense on the sections of a long coil through which wash is flowing. The spirit vapour condenses at the top of the rectifier and is run off through a water-cooled condenser to the spirit safe and on to the spirit receiver. Once the spirit begins to be collected it runs continuously until the end of distillation.
Because of the rectifying element present in this process the distillate is generally lighter in aroma than most Malt Whiskies. It consequently has a milder character and requires less time to mature.
What is the worm?
The worm and its surrounding bath of cold running water, or worm-tub, form together the condenser unit of the Pot Still process of manufacture. The worm itself is a coiled copper tube of decreasing diameter attached by the lyne arm to the head of the Pot Still and kept continuously cold by running water. In it the vapours from the still condense. Fed by the still, it in turn feeds the receiving vessel with the condensed distillate.
The worm is being replaced gradually by the more modern tubular condenser.
Unlike Malt Whisky, Grain Whisky is distilled in a continuous operation in a Patent Still. This is sometimes known as the Coffey Still, after Aeneas Coffey, who developed it in 1831.
Steam is fed into the base of the analyser and hot wash into the top. As the two meet on the surface of the perforated plates, the wash boils and a mixture of alcohol vapours and uncondensed steam rises to the top of the column. The spent wash runs down and is led off from the base.
The hot vapours enter the rectifier at the base and as they rise through the chambers they partially condense on the sections of a long coil through which wash is flowing. The spirit vapour condenses at the top of the rectifier and is run off through a water-cooled condenser to the spirit safe and on to the spirit receiver. Once the spirit begins to be collected it runs continuously until the end of distillation.
Because of the rectifying element present in this process the distillate is generally lighter in aroma than most Malt Whiskies. It consequently has a milder character and requires less time to mature.
What is the worm?
The worm and its surrounding bath of cold running water, or worm-tub, form together the condenser unit of the Pot Still process of manufacture. The worm itself is a coiled copper tube of decreasing diameter attached by the lyne arm to the head of the Pot Still and kept continuously cold by running water. In it the vapours from the still condense. Fed by the still, it in turn feeds the receiving vessel with the condensed distillate.
The worm is being replaced gradually by the more modern tubular condenser.
What are low wines?
This is the name given to the product of the first distillation in the Pot Still process of manufacture. It is the distillate derived from the wash and contains all the alcohol and secondary constituents and some water. It forms the raw material of the second distillation, which is carried out in the Spirit Still. The feints and foreshots are added to the low wines when the Spirit Still is charged.
What is pot ale?
Pot ale, alternatively burnt ale, is the liquor left in the Wash Still after the first distillation in the Pot Still process. It is the residue of the wash after the extraction by distillation of the low wines.
What are foreshots?
Foreshots is the term applied to the first fraction of the distillate received during the distillation of the low wines in the Spirit Still used in the Pot Still process of manufacture. They form the first raw runnings of this second distillation and their collection is terminated by the judgement of the stillman. The following fraction of the distillate is the potable spirit. The foreshots are returned to the still, together with the feints.
What are feints?
Feints is the name given to the third fraction of the distillate received from the second distillation in the Pot Still process. They form the undesirable last runnings of the distillation. As noted above, they are returned with the foreshots to the Spirit Still when it is recharged with low wines.
The term is also applied to the first and last runnings from the Patent Still, in which process they are returned to the wash for re-distillation.
The feints and foreshots from the last distillation of the season are kept for adding to the first low wines of the succeeding season.
What are spent lees?
Spent lees are the residue in the Spirit Still after the distillation of the foreshots, potable spirits, and feints. They are usually treated and run to waste.
This is the name given to the product of the first distillation in the Pot Still process of manufacture. It is the distillate derived from the wash and contains all the alcohol and secondary constituents and some water. It forms the raw material of the second distillation, which is carried out in the Spirit Still. The feints and foreshots are added to the low wines when the Spirit Still is charged.
What is pot ale?
Pot ale, alternatively burnt ale, is the liquor left in the Wash Still after the first distillation in the Pot Still process. It is the residue of the wash after the extraction by distillation of the low wines.
What are foreshots?
Foreshots is the term applied to the first fraction of the distillate received during the distillation of the low wines in the Spirit Still used in the Pot Still process of manufacture. They form the first raw runnings of this second distillation and their collection is terminated by the judgement of the stillman. The following fraction of the distillate is the potable spirit. The foreshots are returned to the still, together with the feints.
What are feints?
Feints is the name given to the third fraction of the distillate received from the second distillation in the Pot Still process. They form the undesirable last runnings of the distillation. As noted above, they are returned with the foreshots to the Spirit Still when it is recharged with low wines.
The term is also applied to the first and last runnings from the Patent Still, in which process they are returned to the wash for re-distillation.
The feints and foreshots from the last distillation of the season are kept for adding to the first low wines of the succeeding season.
What are spent lees?
Spent lees are the residue in the Spirit Still after the distillation of the foreshots, potable spirits, and feints. They are usually treated and run to waste.
What is a single whisky?
A single whisky is the product of one particular distillery.
What is meant by saccharify?
To saccharify means to convert to sugar. In whisky distilling it refers to the process which takes place during the malting and mash-tun stages by which enzymes in the malt, referred to as diastase, turn the starch in the cereals into sugar ready for the fermenting action of the yeast.
What is diastase?
When conditions of temperature and moisture favour germination, the embryo and associated parts of the barley grain secrete a mixture of enzymes commonly known as diastase. These act to modify and make soluble the starch in the barley, thus preparing it for conversion at a later stage to maltose.
What is wort?
Wort is the liquid drawn off the mash-tun in which the malted and unmalted cereals have been mashed with warm water. Wort contains all the sugars of the malt and certain secondary constituents. After cooling, it is passed to the fermenting vats. In Malt distilleries the cereals are all malted; in Grain distilleries a proportion only is malted, the remainder being unmalted. In some cases, Grain distilleries do not separate off wort, passing the complete mash to the fermentation vessels.
What is wash?
The wort or mash technically becomes wash as soon as yeast is added to start fermentation. However, the term is usually used to refer to the liquid at the end of the fermentation. It is the wash which forms the raw material of the first distillation in the Pot Still process and of the only distillation in the Patent Still process.
What is the pot still distillation?
Malt Whisky is distilled twice - although a few distilleries may undertake a third distillation - in Pot Stills which resemble huge copper kettles.
The spirit is driven off from the fermented liquid as a vapour and then condensed back to a liquid.
In the first distillation the fermented liquid, or wash, is put into the Wash Still, which is heated either directly by fire or by steam-heated coils.
At this stage the wash contains yeast, crude alcohol, some unfermentable matter and the by-products of fermentation. During the process of boiling the wash, changes take place in its constituents which are vital to the flavour and character of the whisky.
As the wash boils, vapours pass up the neck of the still and then pass through a water-cooled condenser or a worm, a coiled copper pipe of decreasing diameter enclosed in a water jacket through which cold water circulates.
This condenses the vapours and the resulting distillate, known as low wines, is collected for re-distilling. The liquor remaining in the Wash Still is known as pot ale or burnt ale and is usually treated and converted into distillers’ solubles for animal feed.
The low wines are distilled again in the Spirit Still, similar in appearance and construction to the Wash Still but smaller because the bulk of liquid to be dealt with is less. Three fractions are obtained from the distillation in the Spirit Still. The first is termed foreshots, the second constitutes the potable spirit, and the third is called feints. The foreshots and feints are returned to the process and redistilled in the Spirit Still with the succeeding charge of low wines. The residue in the still, called spent lees, is run to waste.
In the case of the Spirit Still, the design of the still, the height of the head (or top) of the still and the angle of the wide-diameter pipe or lyne arm, connecting the head to the condensing unit, are all very important and have an effect on the distillate.
The Pot Still has changed little in general design over the centuries.
A single whisky is the product of one particular distillery.
What is meant by saccharify?
To saccharify means to convert to sugar. In whisky distilling it refers to the process which takes place during the malting and mash-tun stages by which enzymes in the malt, referred to as diastase, turn the starch in the cereals into sugar ready for the fermenting action of the yeast.
What is diastase?
When conditions of temperature and moisture favour germination, the embryo and associated parts of the barley grain secrete a mixture of enzymes commonly known as diastase. These act to modify and make soluble the starch in the barley, thus preparing it for conversion at a later stage to maltose.
What is wort?
Wort is the liquid drawn off the mash-tun in which the malted and unmalted cereals have been mashed with warm water. Wort contains all the sugars of the malt and certain secondary constituents. After cooling, it is passed to the fermenting vats. In Malt distilleries the cereals are all malted; in Grain distilleries a proportion only is malted, the remainder being unmalted. In some cases, Grain distilleries do not separate off wort, passing the complete mash to the fermentation vessels.
What is wash?
The wort or mash technically becomes wash as soon as yeast is added to start fermentation. However, the term is usually used to refer to the liquid at the end of the fermentation. It is the wash which forms the raw material of the first distillation in the Pot Still process and of the only distillation in the Patent Still process.
What is the pot still distillation?
Malt Whisky is distilled twice - although a few distilleries may undertake a third distillation - in Pot Stills which resemble huge copper kettles.
The spirit is driven off from the fermented liquid as a vapour and then condensed back to a liquid.
In the first distillation the fermented liquid, or wash, is put into the Wash Still, which is heated either directly by fire or by steam-heated coils.
At this stage the wash contains yeast, crude alcohol, some unfermentable matter and the by-products of fermentation. During the process of boiling the wash, changes take place in its constituents which are vital to the flavour and character of the whisky.
As the wash boils, vapours pass up the neck of the still and then pass through a water-cooled condenser or a worm, a coiled copper pipe of decreasing diameter enclosed in a water jacket through which cold water circulates.
This condenses the vapours and the resulting distillate, known as low wines, is collected for re-distilling. The liquor remaining in the Wash Still is known as pot ale or burnt ale and is usually treated and converted into distillers’ solubles for animal feed.
The low wines are distilled again in the Spirit Still, similar in appearance and construction to the Wash Still but smaller because the bulk of liquid to be dealt with is less. Three fractions are obtained from the distillation in the Spirit Still. The first is termed foreshots, the second constitutes the potable spirit, and the third is called feints. The foreshots and feints are returned to the process and redistilled in the Spirit Still with the succeeding charge of low wines. The residue in the still, called spent lees, is run to waste.
In the case of the Spirit Still, the design of the still, the height of the head (or top) of the still and the angle of the wide-diameter pipe or lyne arm, connecting the head to the condensing unit, are all very important and have an effect on the distillate.
The Pot Still has changed little in general design over the centuries.
Indian whisky is an alcoholic beverage that is labelled as "whisky" in India. Much Indian whisky is distilled from fermented molasses, and as such would be considered a sort of rum outside of the Indian subcontinent. 90% of the "whisky" consumed in India is molasses based, although India has begun to distill whisky from malt and other grains.
American whiskey is distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain. It must have the taste, aroma, and other characteristics commonly attributed to whiskey. American blended whiskeys combine straight whiskey with un-aged whiskey, grain neutral spirits, flavorings and colorings.
Canadian whiskies are usually lighter and smoother than other whisky styles. Another common characteristic of many Canadian whiskies is their use of rye that has been malted, which provides a fuller flavour and smoothness. By Canadian law, Canadian whiskies must be produced in Canada, be distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain, "be aged in small wood for not less than 3 years", and "possess the aroma, taste and character generally attributed to Canadian whisky". The terms "Canadian Whisky", "Canadian Rye Whisky" and "Rye Whisky" are legally indistinguishable in Canada and do not denote any particular proportion of rye or other grain used in production.
The model for Japanese whiskies is the single malt Scotch, although there are also examples of Japanese blended whiskies. The base is a mash of malted barley, dried in kilns fired with a little peat (although considerably less than is the case in Scotland), and distilled using the pot still method. For some time Japanese whisky suffered from the commonly held belief that whisky made in the Scotch style, but not produced in Scotland, was inferior, and until fairly recently, the market for Japanese whiskies was almost entirely domestic. In recent years, Japanese whiskies have won prestigious international awards and now enjoys a deserved reputation for a quality product.
Most Irish whiskeys are distilled three times, although there are exceptions. Though traditionally distilled using the pot still method, in modern times a column still is used to produce the grain whiskey used in blends. By law, Irish whiskey must be produced in Ireland and aged in wooden casks for a period of no less than three years, although in practice it is usually three or four times that period. Unpeated malt is almost always used, the main exception being Connemara Peated Malt whiskey.
There are several types of whiskey common to Ireland: single malt, single grain, blended whiskey and uniquely to Ireland, pure pot still whiskey. The designation "pure pot still" as used in Ireland generally refers to whiskey made of 100% barley, mixed malted and unmalted, and distilled in a pot still made of copper. The "green" unmalted barley gives the traditional pure pot still whiskey a spicy, uniquely Irish quality. Like single malt, pure pot still is sold as such or blended with grain whiskey. Usually no real distinction is made between whether a blended whiskey was made from single malt or pure pot still.
Scotch whiskies are generally distilled twice, though some are distilled a third time. International laws require anything bearing the label "Scotch" to be distilled in Scotland and matured for a minimum of three years and one day in oak casks, among other, more specific criteria. If Scotch whisky is from more than one cask, and if it includes an age statement on the bottle, it must reflect the age of the youngest whisky in the blend. Many cask-strength single malts omit the age as they use younger elements in minute amounts for flavouring and mellowing. The basic types of Scotch are malt and grain, which are combined to create blends. Many, though not all, Scotch whiskies use peat smoke to treat their malt, giving Scotch its distinctive smoky flavour. While the market is dominated by blends, the most highly prized of Scotch whiskies are the single malts. Scotch whiskies are divided into five main regions: Highland, Lowland, Islay, Speyside and Campbeltown.
PREPARING THE GRAIN: Grains are shipped directly from farms to the whiskey manufacturer to be stored in silos until needed. The grain is inspected and cleaned to remove all dust and other foreign particles.
All grains except barley are first ground into meal in a gristmill. The meal is then mixed with water and cooked to break down the cellulose walls that contain starch granules. This can be done in a closed pressure cooker at temperatures of up to 311°F (155°C) or more slowly in an open cooker at 212°F (100°C).
Instead of being cooked, barley is malted. The first step in malting barley consists of soaking it in water until it is thoroughly saturated. It is then spread out and sprinkled with water for about three weeks, at which time it begins to sprout. During this germination the enzyme amylase is produced, which converts the starch in the barley into sugars. The sprouting is halted by drying the barley and heating it with hot air from a kiln. For Scotch whiskey, the fuel used in the kiln includes peat, a soft, carbon-rich substance formed when plant matter decomposes in water. The peat gives Scotch whiskey a characteristic smoky taste. The malted barley is then ground like other grains.
MASHING: Mashing consists of mixing cooked grain with malted barley and warm water. The amylase in the malted barley converts the starch in the other grains into sugars. After several hours the mixture is converted into a turbid, sugar-rich liquid known as mash. (In making Scotch malt whiskey the mixture consists only of malted barley and water. After mashing the mixture is filtered to produce a sugar-rich liquid known as wort.)
FERMENTATION: The mash or wort is transferred to a fermentation vessel, usually closed in Scotland and open in the United States. These vessels may be made of wood or stainless steel. Yeast is added to begin fermentation, in which the single-celled yeast organisms convert the sugars in the mash or wort to alcohol. The yeast may be added in the form of new, never-used yeast cells (the sweet mash process) or in the form of a portion of a previous batch of fermentation (the sour mash process.) The sour mash method is more often used because it is effective at room temperature and its low pH (high acidity) promotes yeast growth and inhibits the growth of bacteria. The sweet mash method is more difficult to control, and it must be used at temperatures above 80°F (27°C) to speed up the fermentation and to avoid bacterial contamination. After three or four days, the end product of fermentation is a liquid containing about 10% alcohol known as distiller's beer in the United States or wash in Scotland.
DISTILLATION: Scottish whiskey makers often distill their wash in traditional copper pot stills. The wash is heated so that most of the alcohol (which boils at 172°F [78°C]) is transformed into vapor but most of the water (which boils at 212°F [100°C]) is not. This vapor is transferred back into liquid alcohol in a water-cooled condenser and collected. Most modern distilleries use a continuous still. This consists of a tall cylindrical column filled with a series of perforated plates. Steam enters the still from the bottom, and distiller's beer enters from the top. The beer is distilled as it slowly drips through the plates, and the alcohol is condensed back into a liquid. With either method, the product of the initial distillation—known as low wine—is distilled a second time to produce a product known as high wine or new whiskey, which contains about 70% alcohol.
AGEING: Water is added to the high wine to reduce its alcohol content to about 50% or 60% for American whiskeys and about 65% or higher for Scotch whiskeys. Scotch whiskeys are aged in cool, wet conditions, so they absorb water and become less alcoholic. American whiskeys are aged in warmer, drier conditions so they lose water and become more alcoholic. Whiskey is aged in wooden barrels, usually made from charred white oak. White oak is used because it is one of the few woods that can hold a liquid without leaking but which also allows the water in the whiskey to move back and forth within the pores of the wood, which helps to add flavor. In the United States these barrels are usually new and are only used once. In most other countries it is common to reuse old barrels. New barrels add more flavor than used barrels, resulting in differences in the taste of American and foreign whiskeys. The aging process is a complex one, still not fully understood, but at least three factors are involved. First, the original mixture of water, alcohol, and congeners react with each other over time. Second, these ingredients react with oxygen in the outside air in oxidation reactions. Third, the water absorbs substances from the wood as it moves within it. (Charring the wood makes these substances more soluble in water.) All these factors change the flavor of the whiskey. Whiskey generally takes at least three or four years to mature, and many whiskeys are aged for ten or fifteen years.
BLENDING: Straight whiskeys and single malt Scotch whiskeys are not blended; that is, they are produced from single batches and are ready to be bottled straight from the barrel. All other whiskeys are blended. Different batches of whiskey are mixed together to produce a better flavor. Often neutral grain spirit is added to lighten the flavor, caramel is added to standardize the color, and a small amount of sherry or port wine is added to help the flavors blend. Blended Scotch whiskey usually consists of several batches of strongly flavored malt whiskeys mixed with less strongly flavored grain whiskeys. A few blends contain only malt whiskeys. Blending is often considered the most difficult and critical process in producing premium Scotch whiskeys. A premium blended Scotch whiskey may contain more than 60 individual malt whiskeys which must be blended in the proper proportions.
BOTTLING:
Glass is always used to store mature whiskey because it does not react with it to change the flavor. Modern distilleries use automated machinery to produce as many as 400 bottles of whiskey per minute. The glass bottles move down a conveyor belt as they are cleaned, filled, capped, sealed, labeled, and placed in cardboard boxes. The whiskey is ready to be shipped to liquor stores, bars, and restaurants.
Whisky or whiskey is a type of alcoholic beverage distilled from fermented grain mash. Different grains are used for different varieties, including barley, malted barley, rye, malted rye, wheat, and maize (corn). Most whiskies are aged in wooden casks, made generally of oak, the exception being some corn liquors.
WINE TASTING ASSESS THE WINE
Now note your impressions. Is the wine well balanced? Does the flavour linger in your mouth? A long-lasting flavour generally means a better wine.
As well as making notes about the wines they taste, many people like to give each wine a score. A simple numerical score can't really convey the pleasure a wine gives, but it can be a good discipline for forcing yourself to come to an overall assessment.
If you're going to score, you should mark the appearance, the bouquet and the taste. I suggest you allocate 10 per cent of the marks to appearance (this is the least important and - to be honest -if you wanted to allocate this ten per cent to bouquet, I wouldn't object). Set aside 30 per cent for bouquet. Much of the beauty and fascination of old wines in particular is conveyed in the bouquet. And finally, give 60 per cent to taste. This is what it's all about: the total sensation when you taste and, indeed, drink the wine. And this should be awarded the greatest percentage of the marks.
Add all these up and see if the marks tally with the overall impression of quality, and pleasure, that the wine gave you.
If you have to taste a number of wines in a limited time, spitting is the only way to appreciate the flavours and stay sober. Practise your technique in front of the bathroom mirror. A bucket with sawdust in the bottom makes a practical spittoon.
Take a decent mouthful, so that your mouth is about one-third full, and hold the wine in your mouth for a few moments, breathing through your nose. Draw a little air through your lips and suck it through the wine to help the aromas on their way to your nasal cavity. Note any toughness, acidity and sweetness that the tongue detects, then enjoy the personality and flavour of the aromas in your nasal cavity. Now gently 'chew' the wine, letting it coat your tongue, teeth, and gums.
Note the first impressions, then the taste that develops after the wine has been in your mouth for a few seconds. You can now swallow the wine or spit it out.
Note the first impressions, then the taste that develops after the wine has been in your mouth for a few seconds. You can now swallow the wine or spit it out.
Swirl the wine around the glass to release the aromas, then stick your nose into the glass and take a steady, gentle sniff. Register the smell in terms that mean something to you: if it reminds you of herbs, spices, strawberries, wet wool or tar, that is what makes the wine memorable.
Pour the wine into a glass so that it is about one-third full. Tilt the glass against a white background so that you can see the gradations of colour from the rim to the centre. The colour can begin to suggest the taste of the wine, with clues to grape variety, climate and age. A young red wine may have a deep purple tinge, an older one will be lighter, sometimes brick red. A very pale white will be young, fresh or neutral-tasting, a deeper yellow one will be fuller in flavour, sweeter or older (not always a good thing in white wines)
This tells you a great deal about the wine: its region of origin, age, alcohol level, sometimes its grape variety. The design - traditional or modern - can hint at the intentions of the winemaker. At a blind tasting, you will begin at the next step.
Tasting wine means understanding what you are drinking - and enjoying it more. The ritual observed by professionals is not just showing off: there is a purpose to every stage, and it can help you to get maximum pleasure from a bottle of wine. Wine can be complex stuff, and if you just knock it back you could be missing out on a wonderful sensory experience. Instead, take a few moments to discover a little about a wine's background, appreciate its colour, and savour its scents and range of flavours.
WINE TERMINOLOGY
Acidity
The presence of natural fruit acids that lend a tart, crisp taste to wine
Aroma
Smells in wine that originate from the grape
Astringent
Bitter; gives a drying sensation in the mouth
Balanced
All components of the wine are in harmony
Barrel Fermented
White wine that is fermented in an oak barrel instead of a stainless steel tank
Body
The weight and tactile impression of the wine on the palate that ranges from light to heavy/full
Bouquet
Smells from winemaking, aging and bottle age
Buttery
Rich, creamy flavor associated with barrel fermentation
Character
Describes distinct attributes of a wine
Chewy
Wine that has a very deep, textured and mouth-filling sensation
Clean
Wine without disagreeable aromas or tastes
Closed
Wine that needs to open up; aging and/or decanting can help
Complex
Layered aromas, flavors and textures
Cooked
Wine that has been exposed to excessively high temperatures; spoiled
Corked
Wine that has been tainted with moldy smells or other obvious flaws from a bad cork
Delicate
Light, soft and fresh wine
Dry
No sugar or sweetness remaining; a fruity wine can be dry
Earthy
Flavors and aromas of mushroom, soil and mineral
Elegance
A well balanced, full wine with pleasant, distinct character
Finish
The final impression of a wine on the palate; ranges from short to long
Firm
Texture and structure of a young, tannic red
Flabby/Flat
Lacking in acidity, mouth-feel, structure and/or texture
Fleshy
A soft textured wine
Flinty
A mineral tone, aroma or flavor
Floral
Flower aromas such as rose petals, violets, gardenia or honeysuckle
Fruity
Obvious fruit aromas and flavors; not to be confused with sweet flavors such as berries, cherries and citrus
Full-Bodied
Rich, mouth filling, weighty-textured wine
Grassy
Aromas and flavors of fresh cut grass or fresh herbs
Green
Unripe, tart flavors
Hard
Texture and structure that hinders flavor
Herbaceous
Grassy, vegetable tones and aromas
Lean
Wine is thin and tastes more acidic than fruity
Legs
Teardrop impressions of alcohol weightiness that are visible on the inside edges of a wine glass
Light-Bodied
A wine with delicate flavors, texture and aromas
Lively
Young, fruity and vivacious flavor
Malolactic
Conversion of hard, malic acid (green apple flavors) in wine to soft, lactic acid (rich, butter flavors)
Medium-Bodied
A wine with solid, but not rich weight and texture
Nose
The smell of a wine; aroma
Oak
Aromas and flavors contributed during barrel fermentation and/or aging such as vanilla, caramel, chocolate, smoke, spice or toast
Off-Dry (Semi-dry)
Very low levels of residual sugar remaining in the wine
Rich
Weighty flavors and texture
Round
Smooth flavors and texture; well-balanced
Smoky/Toasty
Aromas of smoke and toast imparted by fired barrels
Sweet
Wines that have a higher concentration of sugar after fermentation
Tannin
A drying, astringent sensation on the palate that is generally associated with heavier red wines
Terroir
French word reflecting the expression of soil, topography and climate in a wine
Thin
Wine is unpleasantly watery and lacks flavor and texture
Vegetal
Herbal, weedy aromas and flavors
Velvety
Smooth-textured with deep, rich aromas and flavors
Vintage
Year that grapes were harvested and fermented to make a wine
The presence of natural fruit acids that lend a tart, crisp taste to wine
Aroma
Smells in wine that originate from the grape
Astringent
Bitter; gives a drying sensation in the mouth
Balanced
All components of the wine are in harmony
Barrel Fermented
White wine that is fermented in an oak barrel instead of a stainless steel tank
Body
The weight and tactile impression of the wine on the palate that ranges from light to heavy/full
Bouquet
Smells from winemaking, aging and bottle age
Buttery
Rich, creamy flavor associated with barrel fermentation
Character
Describes distinct attributes of a wine
Chewy
Wine that has a very deep, textured and mouth-filling sensation
Clean
Wine without disagreeable aromas or tastes
Closed
Wine that needs to open up; aging and/or decanting can help
Complex
Layered aromas, flavors and textures
Cooked
Wine that has been exposed to excessively high temperatures; spoiled
Corked
Wine that has been tainted with moldy smells or other obvious flaws from a bad cork
Delicate
Light, soft and fresh wine
Dry
No sugar or sweetness remaining; a fruity wine can be dry
Earthy
Flavors and aromas of mushroom, soil and mineral
Elegance
A well balanced, full wine with pleasant, distinct character
Finish
The final impression of a wine on the palate; ranges from short to long
Firm
Texture and structure of a young, tannic red
Flabby/Flat
Lacking in acidity, mouth-feel, structure and/or texture
Fleshy
A soft textured wine
Flinty
A mineral tone, aroma or flavor
Floral
Flower aromas such as rose petals, violets, gardenia or honeysuckle
Fruity
Obvious fruit aromas and flavors; not to be confused with sweet flavors such as berries, cherries and citrus
Full-Bodied
Rich, mouth filling, weighty-textured wine
Grassy
Aromas and flavors of fresh cut grass or fresh herbs
Green
Unripe, tart flavors
Hard
Texture and structure that hinders flavor
Herbaceous
Grassy, vegetable tones and aromas
Lean
Wine is thin and tastes more acidic than fruity
Legs
Teardrop impressions of alcohol weightiness that are visible on the inside edges of a wine glass
Light-Bodied
A wine with delicate flavors, texture and aromas
Lively
Young, fruity and vivacious flavor
Malolactic
Conversion of hard, malic acid (green apple flavors) in wine to soft, lactic acid (rich, butter flavors)
Medium-Bodied
A wine with solid, but not rich weight and texture
Nose
The smell of a wine; aroma
Oak
Aromas and flavors contributed during barrel fermentation and/or aging such as vanilla, caramel, chocolate, smoke, spice or toast
Off-Dry (Semi-dry)
Very low levels of residual sugar remaining in the wine
Rich
Weighty flavors and texture
Round
Smooth flavors and texture; well-balanced
Smoky/Toasty
Aromas of smoke and toast imparted by fired barrels
Sweet
Wines that have a higher concentration of sugar after fermentation
Tannin
A drying, astringent sensation on the palate that is generally associated with heavier red wines
Terroir
French word reflecting the expression of soil, topography and climate in a wine
Thin
Wine is unpleasantly watery and lacks flavor and texture
Vegetal
Herbal, weedy aromas and flavors
Velvety
Smooth-textured with deep, rich aromas and flavors
Vintage
Year that grapes were harvested and fermented to make a wine
WINE VINE VITICULTURE VINIFICATION.
•CHABLIS (BURGUNDY)
•POUILLY FUISSE (BURGUNDY)
•MEURSAULT (BURGUNDY)
•PULIGNY MONTRACHET (BURGUNDY)
•SANCERE (LOIRE)
•MUSCADET (LOIRE)
•VOUVRAY (LOIRE)
•ENTRE-DEUX-MERS (BORDERAUX)
•SAUTERNES (BORDEAUX)
•HOCK (GERMANY)
•STEINWEIN (GERMANY)
•FRASCATI (ITALY)
•SOAVE (ITALY)
•CHIANTI (ITALY)
•VALPOLICELLA (ITALY)
•BARDOLINO (ITALY)
•BARBERA (ITALY)
•ST. JULIEN (BORDEAUX)
•POUILLAC (BORDEAUX)
•ST. EMILLON (BORDEAUX)
•POMEROL (BORDEAUX)
•GRAVES (BORDEAUX)
•NUIT ST. GEORGES (BURGUNDY)
•BEAUNE (BURGUNDY)
•CHINON (LOIRE)
•ST. JOSEPH (RHONE)
•CÔTE ROTIE (RHONE)
•HERMITAGE (RHONE)
•CHATEAU NEUF DU PAPE (RHONE)
•VALDEPENAS (SPAIN)
•RIOJA (SPAIN)
ENOLOGY/OENOLOGY: SCIENCE OF WINE MAKING
AMPELLOGRAPHY: SCIENCE OF STUDYING GRAPES
VATS: FERMENTING VESSELS
LEES: IMPURITIES
BRUT: VERY DRY
SEC: MEDIUM DRY
DEMI-SEC: MEDIUM SWEET
DOUX: SWEET
MUST: UNFERMENTED GRAPE JUICE
APERITIFS: ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE SERVED OR CONSUMED BEFORE THE MEAL, HELPS IN INCREASING THE APPETITE
DIGESTIFS: ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE SERVED OR CONSUMED AFTER THE MEAL, HELPS IN DIGESTION
CASK: BARRELS MADE UP OF OAK WOOD, USED TO STORE AND AGE WINES
CELLAR: A WAREHOUSE (USUALLY UNDERGROUND) USED TO STORE WINES
CHAI: FRENCH TERM FOR CELLAR
MAITRE DE CHAI: CELLAR MASTER
VINE: CREEPER OF GRAPE
VINEYARD: THE PLACE WHERE VINES ARE GROWN
This category cannot really be accepted as wines due to the reason that they essentially may not be made from grapes. These are known as Appetizer wines and are used before the meals to stimulate the appetite. These are usually dry wines which are fortified after the fermentation is complete. They can be flavored too and the alcohol content generally ranges from 20-24%.
Dessert wines are generally fortified with brandy which halts their fermentation and makes them stronger and sweeter than table wines and sparkling wines. These are wines which are generally used after the meals with desserts or between meals with snacks. They have a filling effect because of their sweetness and also helps in relaxation and digestion after the meal. Fortified wines are very sweet and have an alcoholic content of about 22%. Basically, the fortification enables the wines to travel more as the increased alcohol content gives the strength to the wines. The time at which the brandy is added decides the degree of sweetness or dryness of the wine.
These are effervescent wines. These wines appear to be bubbling and sparkling. These are used for almost every occasion and could easily be termed as All purpose wines. They could be red or white like the table wines and generally have an alcohol content of 9-14% ranges from very dry to very sweet. All wines other than sparkling wines are called “Still Wines”. The most prominent of all sparkling wines is “CHAMPAGNE”.
These wines are popular at mealtime because of the low alcohol content and also because they have a stimulating effect on the taste buds. These are produced by the natural fermentation of the juice of freshly squeezed grapes. Table wines are generally either red or white containing 9-14% alcohol and may range from very dry to quite sweet . Table wines are considered to be the best with the food as they are great additions to the flavour of a meal. More table wines are produced than all other wines combined.
1. TABLE WINE / STILL WINE / NATURAL WINE
2. SPARKLING WINE
3. FORTIFIED WINE
4. AROMATIZED WINE
2. SPARKLING WINE
3. FORTIFIED WINE
4. AROMATIZED WINE
VIN DE GOUTE: Known as running Wines. These are from the first pressing. Generally are of superior quality.
VIN DE PRESSE: Known as pressed Wines. These are from the second pressing. Little inferior in quality.
VIN DE PRESSE: Known as pressed Wines. These are from the second pressing. Little inferior in quality.
qHarvesting
q Grading
q Weighing
q Removal of stalks / destalking
q Crushing
q Sulphuring
q Fermentation
q Cellaring & second processing
qRacking
q Fining & Filtering
q Refrigeration
q Blending
q Maturing of wine
q Bottling of wines
q Pasteurization
q Ageing of wine
vVITICULTURE (VINEYARD MANAGEMENT)
vFERMENTATION
vVINICULTURE / VINIFICATION
GEWURTZTRAMINER
CHENIN BLANC
RIESLING
SEMILLON
SAUVIGNON BLANC
CHARDONNAY
SANGIOVESE
SYRAH / SHIRAZ
NEBBIOLO
MERLOT
PINOT NOIR
CABERNET SAUVIGNON
Received wisdom is that pruning hard keeps yields low and quality high. However, many growers in Australia have found that they can produce good quality wine with minimal pruning or no pruning at all: yields, they say, find their own level. The debate continues, with European growers still firmly in the hard-pruning camp. This worker at Château Léoville-Barton in Bordeaux is leaving just two crop-bearing branches for the year to come. The answer (if there ever is one) may turn out to be that it is local conditions that matter most.
The best wines are made from a type of vine known as Vitis Vinifera. Some of which are known to be three hundred years old. This wine grows best in this broad belts one north and the other south of the equator. Grapes can be grown outside these belts and be turned into wine, but its quality is not considered as high as that from vines grown within these belts. The northern belt includes knowledgeable wine making countries such as France, Italy, Germany and the United States. The Southern belt embraces Chile, Argentina, Australia and South Africa. Vines will yield more grapes when planted in fertile soil on flat land but the wine made from such grapes will seldom be comparable in quality to wine made from grapes grown on sunny slopes in soil that may not be fertile but is rich in the mineral that create a special characteristic, known as bouquet, that is present in all quality wines.
As the grapes mature, their sugar content increases and their acid content decreases. Grape growers thus must know when the balance between sugar and acid is just right to produce the best wine.
Finally, the skills of the winemaker is extremely important as it can effect the personality and quality of the wine produced. The vintner's skill can also vary, because of local tradition and will dictate the type of wine made. The market for whom the wine is to be manufactured also calls upon different wine making skills. For examples, if the wine is to be made in a smaller quantity with a high quality or in a larger quantity with a lesser quality.
Another factor is climate. Grape vines like Cool nights and Sunny, warm days, as these help them maintain the right balance between acid and sugar in the grapes. However, too hot weather when the grapes are maturing, near harvest times, will decrease the acid and increase the sugar and will produce a wine that may not age well. On the other hand too little sunshine will reduces the amount of grape sugar and produce a wine low in alcohol and as a result, sugar may have to be added before fermentation to rise the alcohol level. Also rain at harvest time can dilute the grapes sugar and encourage rotting thereby lowering the quality of the wine. Mechanical grapes-picking equipment can give grapes growers more control over the grapes quality than hand picking can as all the grape can be picked quickly when they all at their peak of ripeness. But if rain has spoiled some of the grape bunches, hand picking will allow those to be by passed.
Soil is also a factor, the best being one that offers good drainage, which is why gravel and sand are better than clay. Good drainage forces the wines root to seek deep moisture which cause their root to become longer. These longer root are able to reach deep mineral deposits and these mineral, in turn, add flavour to gapes and thus to wine.
A number of factors affect wine quality, the most important being the type of grape used. The best grapevine is the vitis vinifera, which has many different varieties. The grape yield per acre is also a factor. The higher the yield is the lower the wine quality will generally be, conversely, the lower the yield is the more concentrated the grape flavours and the better the wine quality will be normally, a ton of gushed grapes yield an average of 170 gallon of Table wine.
CLIMATE
SOIL
VINE FAMILY & GRAPE VARIETY
VITICULTURE
VINIFICATION / VINICULTURE
LUCK OF THE YEAR
OTHER WINE PRODUCING COUNTRIES:
NEW ZEALAND
NEW ZEALAND
SOUTH AFRICA
AUSTRALIA
CANADA
BRAZIL
CHILE
PARAGUAY
URUGUAY
WINE PRODUCING MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES:
TURKEY
CYPRUS
ISRAEL
EGYPT
TUNISIA
ALGERIA
MOROCCO
OTHER WINE PRODUCING EUROPEAN COUNTRIES:
PORTUGAL
PORTUGAL
ROMANIA
HUNGARY
GREECE
BULGARIA
AUSTRIA
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
POLAND
SWITZERLAND
ENGLAND
THE TOP SEVEN WINE PRODUCING COUNTRIES ARE:
ITALY
FRANCE
RUSSIA
ARGENTINA
SPAIN
USA
GERMANY
ITALY
FRANCE
RUSSIA
ARGENTINA
SPAIN
USA
GERMANY
Wine can be defined as the juice of freshly gathered grapes grown in open vineyards, suitably fermented according to the local customs and traditions without the addition of any foreign substance.
WINES OF AMERICA WINE LABELS OF AMERICA
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North Coast - Includes most of North Coast, California, north of San Francisco Bay. The large North Coast AVA covers most of the region. Notable wine regions include Napa Valley and Sonoma County and the smaller sub AVAs within them. Mendocino and Lake County are also part of this region.
Central Coast - Includes most of the Central Coast of California and the area south and west of San Francisco Bay down to Santa Barbara County. The large Central Coast AVA covers the region. Notable wine regions in this area include Santa Clara Valley AVA,Santa Cruz Mountains AVA, San Lucas AVA, Paso Robles AVA, Santa Maria Valley AVA, Santa Ynez Valley and Livermore Valley AVA.
South Coast - Includes portion of Southern California, namely the coastal regions south of Los Angeles down to the border with Mexico. Notable wine regions in this area include Temecula Valley AVA, Antelope Valley/Leona Valley AVA, San Pasqual Valley AVA and Ramona Valley AVA.
Central Valley - Includes California's Central Valley and the Sierra Foothills AVA. Notable wine regions in this area include the Lodi AVA.
California has over 427,000 acres (1,730 km2) planted under vines mostly located in a stretch of land covering over 700 miles (1,100 km) from Mendocino County to the southwestern tip of Riverside County. There are over 107 American Viticultural Areas (AVAs), including the well known Napa, Russian River Valley, Rutherford and Sonoma Valley AVAs. The Central Valley is California's largest wine region stretching for 300 miles (480 km) from the Sacramento Valley south to the San Joaquin Valley. This one region produces nearly 75% of all California wine grapes and includes many of California's bulk, box and jug wine producers like Gallo, Franzia and Bronco Wine Company.
The wine regions of California are often divided into 4 main regions-
California sparkling wine traces its roots to Sonoma in the 1880s with the founding of Korbel Champagne Cellars. The Korbel brothers made sparkling wine according to the méthode champenoise from Riesling, Chasselas, Muscatel and Traminer. Today most California sparkling wine is largely made from the same grapes used in Champagne-Chardonnay, Pinot noir and some Pinot meunier. Some wineries will also use Pinot blanc, Chenin blanc and French Colombard. The premium quality producers still use the méthode champenoise (or traditional method) while some low cost producers, like Gallo's Andre brand or Constellation Brands' Cook's, will use the Charmat method
While Californian winemakers increasingly craft wines in more "Old World" or European wine styles, most Californian wines (along with Australia, New Zealand, Chile and Argentina) favor simpler, more fruit dominant New World wines. The reliably warm weather allows many wineries to use very ripe fruit which brings up a more fruit forward rather than earthy or mineralic style of wine. It also creates the opportunity for higher alcohol levels with many Californian wines having over 13.5%. The style of Californian Chardonnay differs greatly from wines like Chablis with Californian winemakers frequently using malolactic fermentation and oak aging to make buttery, full bodied wines. Californian Sauvignon blancs are not as herbaceous as wines from the Loire Valley or New Zealand but do have racy acidity and fresh, floral notes. Some Sauvignon blanc are given time in oak which can dramatically change the profile of the wine. Robert Mondavi first pioneered this style as a Fume blanc which other Californian winemakers have adopted. However, that style is not strictly defined to mean an oak wine.
GRAPES & WINES OF CALIFORNIA
Over a hundred grape varieties are grown in California including French, Italian and Spanish wine varietals as well as hybrid grapes and new vitis vinifera varieties developed at the UC Davis Department of Viticulture and Enology. The seven leading grape varieties are:
Cabernet Sauvignon
Chardonnay
Merlot
Pinot noir
Sauvignon blanc
Syrah
Zinfandel
Other important red wine grapes include Barbera, Cabernet franc, Carignane, Grenache, Malbec, Mouvedre, Petite Sirah, Petit Verdot and Sangiovese. Important white wine varietals include Chenin blanc, French Colombard, Gewürztraminer, Marsanne, Muscat Canelli, Pinot blanc, Pinot gris, Riesling, Roussane, Sémillon,Trousseau gris, and Viognier.
WINES OF AUSTRALIA. WINE LABELS OF AUSTRALIA
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Grampians: The Grampians is an Australian wine region located in the state of Victoria, west of Melbourne. It is located near the Grampians National Park and the Pyrenees hills. The area is dominated by red wine production, particularly Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon.
Henty is a town in south western Victoria, Australia. The town is located in the Shire of Glenelg Local Government Area, 373 kilometres (232 mi) west of the state capital, Melbourne.
It is also an Australian wine region. It has one of the cooler climates of any Australian wine region and is known for its white wine production of Chardonnay, Riesling, Semillon and Sauvignon blanc as well as a small red wine production of Pinot noir.
Eden Valley: is a small South Australian town in the Barossa Ranges. It was named by the surveyors of the area after they found the word "Eden" carved into a tree. Eden Valley has an elevation of 460 metres and an average annual rainfall of 716.2mm.Eden Valley gives its name to a wine growing region that shares its western boundary with the Barossa Valley. The region is of similar size to the Barossa Valley, and is well known for producing high quality riesling and shiraz wines. Englishman Joseph Gilbert planted the first Eden Valley vineyard, Pewsey Vale, in 1847. Within the Eden Valley region there is a sub-region called High Eden which is located higher in the Barossa Ranges, giving cooler temperatures.
Pyrenees: The Pyrenees ranges are located in Victoria, Australia near the town of Avoca. It is a wine growing region. The altitude of the ranges is 220-375 m (722-1230 ft). Wines were first planted in the region in 1848. In recent years it is recognized as a significant producer of full-bodied red wines based on Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz grape varieties.
Clare Valley: The Clare Valley is a cooler growing area located in South Australia, north of Adelaide. This is an area of four interconnecting valleys, the Clare, Polish River, Watervale and Skillogallee. The main wines from the Clare Valley are the whites such as Riesling, Chardonnay and Semillon.
Coonawarra: Coonawarra lies to the south east of Adelaide and is more noted for it's reds such as Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon. The area has a cooler climate and is also noted for is reddish coloured terra rossa soil. Penfolds grows some its grapes here for some of its Cabernets. One of the more popular wines from this region includes the Wynns Coonawarra Estate.
Yarra Valley: The Yarra Valley is located in Victoria, north east of Melbourne. It has a temperate climate and is noted for making the cooler climate varietals. The Pinot Noir is popular here and one of the better wines that we have tried from this area is Coldsteam Hills.
Barossa Valley: The Barossa Valley is north east of Adelaide, South Australia, and has a hot climate. Penfolds is one of the more famous wineries in this region. Barossa is renowned for its Rieslings which is indicative of the Valley's German heritage, and for the reds such as Shiraz and Cabernets.
Hunter Valley: The Hunter Valley is another hot area and is located north of Sydney, New South Wales. This area is within easy reach of Sydney for a day trip or you can stay overnight at one of the many bed and breakfasts. Some of the more notable vineyards include Rosemount, and Rothbury. A variety of wines are grown in the Hunter Valley, including Shiraz and Semillon. As well as visiting the larger vineyards, you will want to check out some of the smaller boutique wines.
RED
SHIRAZ CHARDONNAY
CABERNET SAUVIGNON SEMILLON
MERLOT SAUVIGNON BLANC
PINOT NOIR RIESLING
GRENACHE
MOURVEDRE
WHITE
CHARDONNAY
SEMILLON
SAUVIGNON BLANC
RIESLING
Major grape varieties are Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Sémillon, and Riesling. The country has no native grapes, and Vitis vinifera varieties were introduced from Europe and South Africa in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Some varieties have been bred by Australian viticulturalists, for example Cienna and Tarrango.
Although Syrah was originally called Shiraz in Australia and Syrah elsewhere, its dramatic commercial success has led many Syrah producers around the world to label their wine "Shiraz".
About 130 different grape varieties are used by commercial winemakers in Australia. Over recent years many winemakers have begun exploring so called "alternative varieties" other than those listed above. Many varieties from France, Italy and Spain for example Petit Verdot, Pinot Grigio, Sangiovese, Tempranillo and Viognier are becoming more common. Wines from many other varieties are being produced.
The Australian wine industry is the fourth-largest exporter in the world, exporting over 400 million litres a year to a large international export market that includes "old world" wine-producing countries such as France, Italy and Spain. There is also a significant domestic market for Australian wines, with Australians consuming over 400 million litres of wine per year. The wine industry is a significant contributor to the Australian economy through production, employment, export and tourism.
WINES OF FRANCE. FRENCH WINE TERMS Quality wines produces in a specific region
INAO: Institut des Appellations d’origine
TERROIR: It refers to the unique combination of factors like soil, underlying rocks. Altitude, slope of hill, orientation towards sun and other climatic conditions.
TABLE VIN / VIN DE TABLE: These are the wines of medium quality which may be a blend of wines from more than one country of the EEC and are not less than 8.5% in alcoholic content.
VIN DE PAYS: These are the wines from the larger districts of France.
AOC (Appellation d’origine contrôllée): Under AOC, strict regulations are there to govern & control the whole wine manufacturing process ( viticulture, fermentation & vinification ). Quality wines from different French regions whether small or large, if bears a label of AOC, ensures the guarantee of authenticity.
VDQS ( Vins délimités de qualité supérieure): VDQS wines are excellent second quality wines produced from specified vineyards or districts of France. These wines are also governed by strict laws.
MISE EN BOUTEILLE CHÂTEAU: Wines bottled at the Chateau.
This ‘e’ mark indicates that the bottler has complied with the EEC bottling capacity regulations.This ‘e’ mark indicates that the bottler has complied with the EEC bottling capacity regulations.
South West France or Sud-Quest, a somewhat heterogeneous collection Bordeaux. Some areas produce primarily red wines like Bordeaux, while others produce dry or sweet white wines. Area included in Sud-Quest are:
Bergerac & others of upstream Dordogne
Areas of upstream Garonne including Cahors
Areas in Gascony
Bearn, Jaracon
Basquecountry areas, such as Irouléguy
Savoy or savoie, primarily a white wine region in the Alps close to Switzerland, where many unique grape varities are cultivated.
It is located in southeast and close to the Mediterranean. It is perhaps the warmest wine region of France and produces mainly rosé and red wine. It covers eight major appellations led by the Provence flagship, Bandol. Some Provence wine can be compared with the Southern Rhone wines as they share grapes, style and climate. Provence also has a classification of its most prestigious estates, much like Bordeaux.
It is by far the largest region in terms of vineyard area and the region in which much of France’s cheap bulk wines have been produced. While still the source of much of France’s and Europe’s overproduction, the so-called “wine lake”. This region is also the home of some of France’s most innovative producers. They try to combine traditional French wine and international styles and do not hesitate to take lessons from the New World. Most of the wine from this region is sold as Vin de pays.
It’s a small in the mountains close to Switzerland where some unique wine styles, notably Vin Jaune and Vin de Paille are produced. The region covers six appellations and is related to Burgundy through its extensive use of the Burgundian grapes Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Though other varieties are also used. It also shares climatic conditions with Burgundy.
It is an island in the Mediterranean, the wines of which are primarily consumed on the island itself. It has nine AOC regions and and island wide vin de pays designation and is still developing its production methods as well as its regional style.
This region is located along the banks of Loire river which is the longest and one of the most beautiful rivers of France. Loire wines sometimes are collectively known as “ Vins de la loire” which includes red, white & rose wines , ranging in quality from poor to great.
This region is located along the Rhine river which flows across Germany. This region produces some good quality white wines which are France’s answer to the German Rhine & Mosell wines. Riesling is the main grape variety used for making the wines.
This region produces the world’s best sparkling wine which is named after the region i.e. “CHAMPAGNE”. The word Champagne can only be associated to a sparkling wine, if
a)It is produced within the region of Champagne and
b)It is manufactured by using the “ Methode Champagnoise”.
1.MONTAGNE DE REIMS
2.VALLEE DE LA MARNE
3.CÔTE DE BLANCS
4.CÔTE DE SEZANNE
5.AUBE
This region is named after the river which flows through it. Rhone produces good white & red wines.
1.COTE ROTIE
2.HERMITAGE
3.CHATEAU NEUF-DU-PAPE
This region is also known as “The heart of France” and is famous for the fine quality red, white & sparkling burgundies produced here.
1.CHABLIS
2.COTE D’OR
3.MACONNAISE
4.BEAUJOLAIS
5.CHALLONAISE
Largest wine producing region of France. This region is famous for the good quality red wines produced here which are known as “CLARET” in England and other English speaking countries.
1.MEDOC
2.GRAVES
3.ST. EMILLON
4.POMEROL
5.SAUTERNES
THERE ARE 6 MAIN WINE PRODUCING REGIONS AND SOME OTHER SMALLER REGIONS AS:
1.BORDEAUX
1.BORDEAUX
2.BURGUNDY
3.RHONE
4.CHAMPAGNE
5.ALSACE
6.LOIRE
Abbreviation for Amtliche Prüfungsnummer, the official testing number displayed on a German wine label that shows that the wine was tasted and passed government quality control standards.
1.Spätburgunder: The forefather of the burgundy wines. Dark red colour with delicate aroma. Typical is a taste that reminds of blackcurrant or blackberry. These noble wines are good with game, poultry, paté de fois gras, pasta and pizza. The colour stays in the berry involucres and creates, therefore, a salmon-coloured fresh wine that is especially consumed in summer.
2.Trollinger: Southern Tyrol is the original homeland of the Trollinger from where the name is derived from. Today, it is almost exclusively cultivated in Wurttemberg. A light and fruity wine that varies in its colour between salmon-red and ruby-red. A good Trollinger tastes juicy and is served lightly cooled.
3.Muskattrollinger: Fruity, bright red wine with distinctive nutmeg aroma. Rare speciality, good with Hors d’oeuvres and desserts.
4.Lemberger (Blaufrankisch): a warm and aromatic wine. The colour is a glowing ruby-red with some brown reflections. Powerful red wine, one of the most noble types.
5.Dornfelder: Deep purple, dense colour. Noble red wine with a full body and full aroma and flavour. Excellent for the production in small wooden barrels (barrique).
6.Samtrot: A natural mutation of the black Riesling. Ruby-red to dark red colour. Velvety taste, warm and full bodied.
3. Franconia or Franken - around portions of Main river, and the only wine region situated in Bavaria. Noted for growing many varieties on chalky soil and for producing powerful dry Silvaner wines.
4. Hessische Bergstraße (Hessian Mountain Road) - a small region in the federal state Hesse dominated by Riesling.
5. Mittelrhein - along the middle portions of river Rhine, primarily between the regions Rheingau and Mosel, and dominated by Riesling.
6. Mosel - along the river Moselle (Mosel) and its tributaries, the rivers Saar and Ruwer, and was previously known as Mosel-Saar-Ruwer. The Mosel region is dominated by Riesling grapes and slate soils, and the best wines are grown in dramatic-looking steep vineyards directly overlooking the rivers. This region produces wine that is light in body, crisp, of high acidity and with pronounced mineral character. The only region to stick to Riesling wine with noticeable residual sweetness as the "standard" style, although dry wines are also produced.
7. Nahe - around the river Nahe where volcanic origins give very varied soils. Mixed grape varieties but the best known producers primarily grow Riesling, and some of them have achieved world reputation in recent years.
8. Palatinate or Pfalz - the second largest producing region in Germany, with production of very varied styles of wine (especially in the southern half), where red wine has been on the increase. The northern half of the region is home to many well known Riesling producers with a long history, which specialize in powerful Riesling wines in a dry style. Warmer than all other German wine regions. Until 1995, it was known in German as Rheinpfalz.
9. Rheingau - a small region situated at a bend in river Rhine which give excellent conditions for wine growing. The oldest documented references to Riesling come from the Rheingau region and it is the region where many German wine making practices have originated, such as the use of Prädikat designations, and where many high-profile producers are situated. Dominated by Riesling with some Spätburgunder. The Rheingau Riesling style is in-between Mosel and the Palatinate and other southern regions, and at its finest combines the best aspects of both.
10. Rheinhessen or Rhenish Hesse - the largest production area in Germany. Once known as Liebfraumilch land, but a quality revolution has taken place since the 1990s. Mixed wine styles and both red and white wines. The best Riesling wines are similar to Palatinate Riesling - dry and powerful. Despite its name, it lies in the federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate, not in Hesse.
11. Saale-Unstrut - one of two regions in former East Germany, situated along the rivers Saale and Unstrut, and Germany's northernmost wine growing region.
12. Saxony or Sachsen - one of two regions in former East Germany, in the southeastern corner of the country, along the river Elbe in the federal state of Saxony.
13. Württemberg - a traditional red wine region, where grape varieties Trollinger (the region's signature variety), Schwarzriesling and Lemberger outnumber the varieties that dominate elsewhere. One of two wine regions in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg.
1. Ahr - a small region along the river Ahr, a tributary of Rhine, that despite its northernly location primarily produces red wine from Spätburgunder.
2. Baden - in Germany's southwestern corner, across river Rhine from Alsace, and the only German wine region situated in European Union wine growing zone B rather than A, which results in higher minimum required maturity of grapes and less chaptalisation allowed. Noted for its pinot wines - both red and white. Although the Kaiserstuhl region in the wine growing region of Baden is Germany's warmest location, the average temperature in the whole wine region is a little bit lower than in Palatinate (zone A). One of two wine regions in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg.
fully ripened light wines from the main harvest, typically semi-sweet with crisp acidity, but can be dry if designated so.
Spätlese - meaning "late harvest"
typically semi-sweet, often (but not always) sweeter and fruitier than Kabinett. Spätlese can be a relatively full-bodied dry wine if designated so. While Spätlese means late harvest the wine is not as sweet as a dessert wine.
Auslese - meaning "select harvest"
made from selected very ripe bunches or grapes, typically semi-sweet or sweet, sometimes with some noble rot character. Sometimes Auslese is also made into a powerful dry wine, but the designation Auslese trocken has been discouraged after the introduction of Grosses Gewächs. Auslese is the Prädikat which covers the widest range of wine styles, and can be a dessert wine.
Beerenauslese - meaning "select berry harvest"
made from individually selected overripe grapes often affected by noble rot, making rich sweet dessert wine.
made from grapes that have been naturally frozen on the vine, making a very concentrated wine. Must reach at least the same level of sugar content in the must as a Beerenauslese. The most classic Eiswein style is to use only grapes that are not affected by noble rot. Until the 1980s, the Eiswein designation was used in conjunction with another Prädikat (which indicated the ripeness level of the grapes before they had frozen), but is now considered a Prädikat of its own.
Trockenbeerenauslese - meaning "select dry berry harvest" or "dry berry selection"
made from selected overripe shrivelled grapes often affected by noble rot making extremely rich sweet wines.
Prädikat designations
The Prädikatswein (formerly QmP) category of the classification contains most high-quality German wines, with the exception of some top-quality dry wines. The different Prädikat designations differ in terms of the required must weight, the sugar content of the grape juice, and the level required is dependent on grape variety and wine-growing region and is defined in terms of the Oechsle scale. In fact the must weight is seen as a rough indicator of quality (and price). The Prädikat system has its origin at Schloss Johannisberg in Rheingau, where the first Spätlese was produced in 1775 where wines received different colour seals based on their must weight.
The different Prädikat designations used are as followed, in order of increasing sugar levels in the must:
Prädikatswein, recently (August 1, 2007) renamed from Qualitätswein mit Prädikat (QmP) :
The top level of the classification system. These prominently display a Prädikat from Kabinett to Trockenbeerenauslese on the label and may not be chaptalized. Prädikatswein range from dry to intensely sweet, but unless it is specifically indicated that the wine is dry or off-dry, these wines always contain a noticeable amount of residual sugar. Prädikatswein must be produced from allowed varieties in one of the 39 subregions (Bereich) of one of the 13 wine-growing regions, although it is the region rather than the subregion which is mandatory information on the label. (Some of the smaller regions, such as Rheingau, consist of only one subregion.) The required must weight is defined by the Prädikat, and the alcohol content of the wine must be at least 7% by volume for Kabinett to Auslese, and 5.5% by volume for Beerenauslese, Eiswein and Trockenbeerenauslese.
3. Qualitatswein bestinnter Anbaugebiete (QbA): These wines must be produced exclusively from allowed varieties in one of the 13 wine-growing regions (Anbaugebiete), and the region must be shown on the label. The grapes must reach a must weight of 51°Oe to 72°Oe depending on region and grape variety. The alcohol content of the wine must be at least 7% by volume, and chaptalization is allowed. QbA range from dry to semi-sweet, and the style is often indicated on the label. There are some special wine types which are considered as special forms of QbA. Some top-level dry wines are officially QbA although they would qualify as Prädikatswein. It should be noted that only Qualitätswein plus the name of the region, rather than the full term Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete is found on the label.
2. Deutscher Landwien: This category is equivalent to French Vin de pays. There are 19 different areas from where the German Country wine can be produced. The wine must be dry or semi dry with 0.5% more alcohol that tablewines. These are also known as German Fruit wine.
1. Deutscher Tafelwein: This category is equivalent to the French Table Wines. The alcohol content must be at least 8.5% by volume. Sugar can be added to reach at this level. Acidity must be 4.5 g/lt. Tafelwein (without Deutscher) is a table wine blended with other European wines, also known as Euroblend.
Germany is divided into 13 wine producing regions (Anbaugebiete). Each region is having 2 or more districts. Each district has several villages or parishes and each village has several vineyards. In total, there are about 2600 vineyards in Germany.
1.1.Ahr
2. Baden
3.3.Hessiche Bergstrasse
4. Franken
5.5.Mittelrhein
6. Mosel-Saar-Ruwer
7.7.Nahe
8. Rheingau
9.9.Rheinhessen
10. Rheinpfalz
11.11.Württemberg
12. Saale Unstrut
13. Sachsen
Germany does not produce much of wine. Its total wine production is only about 10% of either France’s or Italy’s and only about 1% of the world’s total production.
Germany produces wines from the major vines of the world like Riesling, Sylvaner, Traminer etc. Although in earlier times most of the German wines used to be red but today it is almost entirely white. The wines of Germany are produced primarily in the valley of the Rhine & Moselle rivers. Some of the best German wines are produced from over ripened grapes, a condition that concentrates the grape sugar & natural flavour. It is the degree of ripeness that forms the basis of German wine laws. Because of their sweetness, German wines are best consumed on their own or with desserts but not with any strongly flavoured food.
WINES OF INDIA. MAJAOR INDIAN WINERIES
SULA WINES
CHATEAU INDAGE
GROVERS
VINSURA WINES
SANKALP WINES
RENAISSANCE WINES
ND WINES
VINICOLA
VINTAGE WINES
MANDALA WINES
FLAMINGO WINES
FOUR SEASONS WINES
| Variety | Area (ha) | Production (t) |
| Anab-e-Shahi (white, seeded) | 3,000 | 135,000 |
| Bangalore Blue Syn. Isabella (black, seeded) | 4,500 | 180,000 |
| Bhokri (white, seeded) | 500 | 15,000 |
| Flame Seedless (red, seedless) | 500 | 10,000 |
| Gulabi Syn. Muscat Hamburg (purple, seeded) | 1,000 | 30,000 |
| Perlette (white, seedless) | 1,500 | 60,000 |
| Sharad Seedless - A mutant of Kishmish Chorni (black, seedless) | 1,000 | 20,000 |
| Thomson Seedless and its mutants (white, seedless) | 22,000 | 550,000 |
| Total | 34,000 | 1,000,000 |
Vineyards in India range from the more temperate climate of the northwestern state of Punjab down to the southern state of Tamil Nadu. Some of India's larger wine producing areas are located in Maharashtra, Karnataka near Bangalore and Andhra Pradesh near Hyderabad. Within the Maharashtra region, vineyards are found on the Deccan Plateau and around Baramati, Nashik, Pune, Sangli and Solapur. The high heat and humidity of the far eastern half of the country limits viticultural activity.
India has forever remained a land of dichotomies. It has always perceived a notion in almost two totally paradoxical perspectives. And wine or liquor is no exception to this rule. When on one hand it was a drink of festivities; it was also considered a forbidden affair for the society at large. Drink was considered as a ‘Taamasi’ food that is always subject to repudiation as it only results in bad thoughts and behaviour. But it was never shunned completely and pervaded every spatial and temporal dimension.
Since the very inception Indians had the native familiarity with Wine. This becomes apparent with the artifacts found at the sites of Harappan Civilization. During the Vedic period wine was often referred to as Somarasa; it was believed to be associated with Indra, and was a part of religious festivals. Soma is mentioned in Vedic scriptures as well. Also the reference of Drakshasava is found in ayurvedic texts which was basically a delicious digestive preparation made from ripened red grapes, cinnamon, cardamom, nagkesara, vidanga, tejpatra, pippali, and black pepper and contained natural alcohol.
Indian wine is wine made in the Asian country of India. Viticulture in India has a long history dating back to the time of the Indus Valley civilization when grapevines were believed to have been introduced from Persia. Winemaking has existed throughout most of India's history but was particularly encouraged during the time of the Portuguese and British colonization of the subcontinent. The end of the 19th century saw the phylloxera louse take its toll on the Indian wine industry followed by religious and public opinion moving towards the prohibition of alcohol. Following the country's independence from the British Empire, the Constitution of India declared that one of the government's aims was the total prohibition of alcohol. Several states went dry and the government encouraged vineyards to convert to table grape and raisin production. In the 1980s and 1990s, a revival in the Indian wine industry took place as international influences and the growing middle class increased started increasing demand for the beverage. By the turn of the 21st century, demand was increasing at a rate of 20-30% a year.
WINES OF ITALY. MAJOR ITALIAN GRAPES - TREBBIANO
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The term "Super Tuscan" describes any Tuscan red wine that does not adhere to traditional blending laws for the region. For example, Chianti Classico wines are made from a blend of grapes with Sangiovese as the dominant varietal in the blend. Super Tuscans often use other grapes, especially cabernet sauvignon, making them ineligible for DOC(G) classification under the traditional rules.
Aglianico - Considered the "noble varietal of the south," it is primarily grown in Campania and Basilicata. The name is derived from Hellenic, so it is considered a Greek transplant. Thick skinned and spicy, the wines are often both rustic and powerful.
Sagrantino - A native to Umbria, it is only planted on 250 hectares, but the wines produced from it (either blended with Sangiovese as Rosso di Montefalco or as a pure Sagrantino) are world-renowned. Inky purple, with rustic brooding fruit and heavy tannins, these wines can age for many years.
Malvasia Nera - Red Malvasia varietal from Piedmont. A sweet and perfumed wine, sometimes elaborated in the passito style
Tocai Friulano - A varietal distantly related to Sauvignon Blanc, it yields the top wine of Friuli, full of peachiness and minerality. Currently, there is a bit of controversy regarding the name, as the EC has demanded it changed to avoid confusion with the Tokay dessert wine from Hungary.
Ribolla Gialla - A Slovenian grape that now makes its home in Friuli, these wines are decidedly old-world, with aromas of pineapple and mustiness.
Arneis - A crisp and floral varietal from Piedmont, which has been grown there since the 15th century.
Malvasia Bianca - Another white varietal that peeks up in all corners of Italy with a wide variety of clones and mutations. Can range from easy quaffers to funky, musty whites.
Pigato - A heavily acidic varietal from Liguria, the wines are vinified to pair with a cuisine rich in seafood.
Fiano (wine) - Grown on the southwest coast of Italy, the wines from this grape can be described as dewy and herbal, often with notes of pinenut and pesto.
Garganega - The main grape varietal for wines labeled Soave, this is a crisp, dry white wine from the Veneto wine region of Italy. It's a very popular wine that hails from northeast Italy around the city of Verona. Currently, there are over 3,500 distinct producers of Soave
Sangiovese - Italy's claim to fame, the pride of Tuscany. Its wines are full of cherry fruit, earth, and cedar. It produces Chianti Classico, Rosso di Montalcino, Brunello di Montalcino, Rosso di Montepulciano, Montefalco Rosso, and many others.
Nebbiolo - The most noble of Italy's varietals. The name (meaning "little fog") refers to the autumn fog that blankets most of Piedmont where it is grown, a condition the grape seems to enjoy. It is a somewhat difficult varietal to master, but produces the most renowned Barolo and Barbaresco, made in province of Cuneo, along with the lesser-known Sforzato, Inferno and Sassella made in Valtellina, Ghemme and Gattinara, made in Vercelli's province. The wines are known for their elegance and bouquet of wild mushroom, truffle, roses, and tar.
Montepulciano- The grape of this name is not to be confused with the Tuscan town of Montepulciano; it is most widely planted on the opposite coast in Abruzzo. Its wines develop silky plum-like fruit, friendly acidity, and light tannin.
Barbera - The most widely grown red wine grape of Piedmont and Southern Lombardy, most famously around the towns of Asti and Alba, and Pavia. The wines of Barbera were once simply "what you drank while waiting for the Barolo to be ready." With a new generation of wine makers, this is no longer the case. The wines are now meticulously vinified, aged Barbera gets the name "Barbera Superiore" (Superior Barbera), sometimes aged in French barrique becoming "Barbera Barricato", and intended for the international market. The wine has bright cherry fruit, a very dark color, and a food-friendly acidity.
Corvina - Along with the varietals rondinella and molinara, this is the principal grape which makes the famous wines of the Veneto: Valpolicella and Amarone. Valpolicella wine has dark cherry fruit and spice. After the grapes undergo passito (a drying process), the Amarone they yield is elegant, dark, and full of raisin like fruits. Some Amarones can age for 40+ years.
Nero d'Avola - Nearly unheard of in the international market until recent years, this native varietal of Sicily is gaining attention for its robust, inky wines, and has therefore been nicknamed "the Barolo of the South".
Dolcetto - A grape that grows alongside Barbera and Nebbiolo in Piedmont, its name means "little sweet one"", referring not to the taste of the wine, but the ease in which it grows and makes great wines, suitable for everyday drinking. Flavors of concord grape, wild blackberries and herbs permeate the wine.
Negroamaro - The name literally means "black and bitter". A widely planted grape with its concentration in the region of Puglia, it is the backbone of the acclaimed Salice Salentino: spicy, toasty, and full of dark red fruits.
Aglianico - Considered the "noble varietal of the south," it is primarily grown in Campania and Basilicata. The name is derived from Hellenic, so it is considered a Greek transplant. Thick skinned and spicy, the wines are often both rustic and powerful.
Sagrantino - A native to Umbria, it is only planted on 250 hectares, but the wines produced from it (either blended with Sangiovese as Rosso di Montefalco or as a pure Sagrantino) are world-renowned. Inky purple, with rustic brooding fruit and heavy tannins, these wines can age for many years.
Malvasia Nera - Red Malvasia varietal from Piedmont. A sweet and perfumed wine, sometimes elaborated in the passito style
Italy's 20 wine regions correspond to the 20 political regions. Understanding of Italian wine becomes clearer with an understanding of the differences between each region; their cuisines reflect their indigenous wines, and vice-versa. The 36 DOCG wines are located in 13 different regions but most of them are concentrated in Piedmont and Tuscany. Among these are appellations appreciated and sought by wine lovers around the world: Barolo, Barbaresco, Brunello and Chianti Classico. Despite its high quality Amarone is not classified as a DOCG.
The regions are, roughly from Northwest to Southeast:
Aosta Valley (Valle D'Aosta)
Piedmont (Piemonte)
Liguria
Lombardy (Lombardia)
Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Veneto
Emilia-Romagna
Tuscany (Toscana)
Marche (Le Marche)
Umbria
Lazio (Latium)
Abruzzo
Molise
Campania
Basilicata
Apulia (Puglia)
Calabria
Sicily (Sicilia)
Sardinia (Sardegna)
Italy's classification system is a modern one that reflects current realities. It has four classes of wine, with two falling under the EU category Quality Wine Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR) and two falling under the category of 'table wine'. The four classes are:
Table Wine:
Vino da Tavola (VDT) - Denotes wine from Italy. NOTE: this is not always synonymous with other countries' legal definitions of 'table wine'. The appellation indicates either an inferior qualifying wine, or one that does not follow current wine law. Some quality wines do carry this appellation.
Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) - Denotes wine from a more specific region within Italy. This appellation was created for the "new" wines of Italy, those that had broken the strict, old wine laws but were wines of great quality. Before the IGT was created, quality "Super Tuscan" wines such as Tignanello and Sassicaia were labeled Vino da Tavola.
QWPSR:
Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC)
Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG)
Both DOC and DOCG wines refer to zones which are more specific than an IGT, and the permitted grapes are also more specifically defined. The main difference between a DOC and a DOCG is that the latter must pass a blind taste test for quality in addition to conforming to the strict legal requirements to be designated as a wine from the area in question. Presently, there are 120 IGT zones. In February 2006 there were 311 DOC plus 36 DOCG appellations.
Although wines had been elaborated from the wild Vitis vinifera grape for millennia, it wasn't until the Greek colonization that wine-making flourished. Viticulture was introduced into Sicily and southern Italy by the Mycenaean Greeks, and was well established when the extensive Greek colonization transpired around 800 BC. It was during the Roman defeat of the Carthaginians (acknowledged masters of wine-making) in the second century BC that Italian wine production began to further flourish. Large-scale, slave-run plantations sprang up in many coastal areas and spread to such an extent that, in AD92, emperor Domitian was forced to destroy a great number of vineyards in order to free up fertile land for food production.
During this time, viticulture outside of Italy was prohibited under Roman law. Exports to the provinces were reciprocated in exchange for more slaves, especially from Gaul where trade was intense, according to Pliny, due to the inhabitants being besotted with Italian wine, drinking it unmixed and without restraint. Roman wines contained more alcohol and were generally more powerful than modern fine wines. It was customary to mix wine with a good proportion of water which may otherwise have been unpalatable, making wine drinking a fundamental part of early Italian life.
As the laws on provincial viticulture were relaxed, vast vineyards began to flourish in the rest of Europe, especially Gaul (present day France) and Hispania. This coincided with the cultivation of new vines, like biturica (ancestor of the Cabernets). These vineyards became hugely successful, to the point that Italy ultimately became an import centre for provincial wines.
Depending on the vintage, modern Italy is the world's largest or second largest wine producer. In 2005, production was about 20% of the global total, second only to France, which produced 26%. In the same year, Italy's share in dollar value of table wine imports into the U.S. was 32%, Australia's was 24%, and France's was 20%. Along with Australia, Italy's market share has rapidly increased in recent years.
Italian wine is wine produced in Italy, a country which is home to some of the oldest wine-producing regions in the world. Etruscans and Greek settlers produced wine in the country long before the Romans started developing their own vineyards in the 2nd century BC. Roman grape-growing and winemaking was prolific and well-organized, pioneering large-scale production and storage techniques like barrel-making and bottling. Two thousand years later, Italy remains one of the world's foremost producers, responsible for approximately one-fifth of world wine production in 2005.
Wine is a popular drink in Italy. Grapes are grown in almost every part of Italy, with more than 1 million vineyards under cultivation. In some places the vines are trained along low supports. In others they climb as slender saplings.
Most wine-making in Italy is done in modern wineries. However, villagers who make wine for their own use sometimes still tread the grapes with their bare feet, until the juice is squeezed out. They believe this ancient method still makes the best wine.
WINES OF PORTUGAL. PORTUGUESE WINE TERMS
Adega: Winery
Branco: White
Casta: Grape variety
Colheita: Vintage year
Espumante: Sparkling wine
Garrafeira: A reserva red wine aged at least two years in a barrel and one year in a bottle; a white wine aged at least six months in a barrel and six months in a bottle.
Maduro: mature (in opposition to verde). Mature wines are Portuguese wines produced in all regions except the ones produced in Vinho Verde region, due to that, the term "maduro" rarely appears on bottles.
Quinta: Vineyard
Reserva: Superior quality wine of a single vintage
Seco: Dry
Tinto: Red
Verde: green (in opposition to maduro). Wines produced in Vinho Verde region with a distinctive method.
Vinho: Wine
Vinho Verde is produced from grapes which do not reach great doses of sugar. Therefore, Vinho Verde does not require an aging process. Vinho Verde wines are now largely exported, and are the most exported Portuguese wines after the Port Wine. The most popular variety in Portugal and abroad are the white wines, but there are also red and more rarely rosé wines. A notable variety of Vinho Verde is Vinho Alvarinho which is a special variety of white Vinho Verde, the production of Alvarinho is restricted by EU law to a small sub-region of Monção, in the northern part of the Minho region in Portugal. It has more alcohol (11.5 to 13%) than the other varieties (8 to 11.5%).
Douro wine (Vinho do Douro) originates from the same region as port wines. In the past they were considered to be a bitter tasting wine. In order to prevent spoilage during the voyage from Portugal to England, the English decided to add a Portuguese wine brandy known as aguardente. The first documented commercial transactions appearing in registries of export date as far back as 1679. Today's Douro table wines are enjoying growing favor in the world, maintaining many traits that are reminiscent of a port wine.
Dão wine is from the Região Demarcada do Dão, a region demarcated in 1908, but already in 1390 there were taken some measures to protect this wine. The Dão Wine is produced in a mountainous region with temperate climate, in the area of the Mondego and Dão Rivers in the north region of central Portugal. These mountains protect the castas from maritime and continental influences
Dão wine is from the Região Demarcada do Dão, a region demarcated in 1908, but already in 1390 there were taken some measures to protect this wine. The Dão Wine is produced in a mountainous region with temperate climate, in the area of the Mondego and Dão Rivers in the north region of central Portugal. These mountains protect the castas from maritime and continental influences
Bairrada wine, is produced in the Região Demarcada da Bairrada. The name "Bairrada" is from "barros" (clay) and due to the clayey soils of the region. Although the region was classified in 1979, it is an ancient vineyard region. The vines grow exposed to the sun, favouring the further maturity of the grapes. The Baga casta is intensely used in the wines of the region. The Bairrada region produces table, white and red wines. Yet, it is notable for its sparkling natural wine: the "Conde de Cantanhede" and "Marquês de Marialva" are the official brands for this wine.
Alentejo wine is produced from grapes planted in vast vineyards extending over rolling plains under the sun which shines on the grapes and ripens them for the production.
Colares wine is type of wine produced in sandy soils outside Lisbon between the foothills of Sintra and Roca Cape. Because of Lisbon's urban sprawl, the lands available for vineyards became so small, that the demands has always been higher than the production, making it one of the most expensive Portuguese wines
The appellation system of the Douro region was created nearly two hundred years before that of France, in order to protect its superior wines from inferior ones. The quality and great variety of wines in Portugal are due to noble castas, microclimates, soils and proper technology.
Official designations:
vQuality Wine Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR) or VQPRD - Vinho de Qualidade Produzido em Região Demarcada
v These are the most protected wine and indicates a specific vineyard, such as Port Wine, Vinhos Verdes, and Alentejo Wines. These wines are labeled D.O.C. (Denominação de Origem Controlada) which secures a superior quality.
v Wines that have more regulations placed upon them but are not in a DOC region fall under the category of Indicação de Proveniência Regulamentada (IPR, Indication of Regulated Provenance)
v Regional Wine - Vinho Regional Carries with it a specific region within Portugal.
v
Table Wines - Vinho de Mesa carries with it only the producer and the designation that it's from Portugal.
Portugal possesses a large array of native varietals, producing an abundant variety of different wines. The wide array of Portuguese grape varietals contributes as significantly as the soil and climate to wine differentiation, producing distinctive wines from the Northern regions to Madeira Islands, and from Algarve to the Azores. In Portugal only some grape varietals or castas are authorized or endorsed in the Demarcated regions, such as:
Vinhos Verdes - White castas Alvarinho, Arinto Pedern),Avesso, Azal, Batoca, Loureiro, Trajadura; red castas Amaral,Borraçal, Alvarelhão, Espadeiro, Padeiro, Pedral, Rabo de Anho, Vinhão.
Porto/Douro - Red castas Touriga Nacional, Tinta Amarela, Aragonez, Bastardo, Castelão, Cornifesto, Donzelinho Tinto,Malvasia Preta, Marufo, Rufete, Tinta Barroca, Tinta Francisca Tinto Cão, Touriga Franca; white castas Arinto, Cercial,Donzelinho Branco, Folgazão, Gouveio, Malvasia Fina, Moscatel Galego Branco, Rabigato, Samarrinho, Semillon, Sercial,Roupeiro, Verdelho, Viosinho, Vital.
Dão - Red castas Touriga Nacional, Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Jaen e Rufete; White castas Encruzado, Bical, Cercial, Malvasia Fina, Verdelho.
Bairrada - Red casts Baga, Alfrocheiro, Camarate, Castelão, Jaen, Touriga Nacional, Aragonez; white castas Maria Gomes, Arinto, Bical, Cercial, Rabo de Ovelha, Verdelho.
Bucelas - White castas Arinto, Sercial e Rabo de Ovelha.
Colares - Red casta Ramisco; White casta Malvasia
Carcavelos - Red castas Castelão and Preto Martinho; White castas Galego Dourado, Ratinho, Arinto.
Setúbal - Red casta Moscatel Roxo; white casta Moscatel de Setúbal.
Alentejo - Red castas Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Periquita1, Tinta Caiada, Trincadeira, Alicante Bouschet, Moreto; White castas Antão Vaz, Arinto , Fernão Pires, Rabo de Ovelha,Roupeiro
Algarve - Red castas Negra Mole, Trincadeira, Alicante Bouschet, Aragonez , Periquita; White castas Arinto, Roupeiro, Manteúdo, Moscatel Graúdo, Perrum, Rabo de Ovelha.
Madeira - Red castas Bastardo, Tinta, Malvasia Cândida Roxa, Verdelho Tinto e Tinta Negra; white castas Sercial, Malvasia Fina (Boal), Malvasia Cândida, Folgasão (Terrantez), Verdelho
Portuguese wine is the result of traditions introduced to the region by ancient civilizations, such as the Phoenicians,Carthaginians, Greeks, and mostly the Romans. Portugal started to export its wines to Rome during the Roman Empire. Modern exports developed with trade to England after the Methuen Treaty in 1703. From this commerce a wide variety of wines started to be grown in Portugal. And, in 1758, the first wine-producing region of the world, the Região Demarcada do Douro was created under the orientation of Marquis of Pombal, in the Douro Valley. Portugal has two wine producing regions protected by UNESCO asWorld Heritage: the Douro Valley Wine Region (Douro Vinhateiro) and Pico Island Wine Region (Ilha do Pico Vinhateira). Portugal has a large variety of native breeds, producing a very wide variety of different wines with distinctive personality.
ROBERTSON and a few other villages lie along a fertile, if warm, valley where white wines such as chardonnay (from De Wetshof Estate) and sparkling wine (from Graham Beck Winery) used to be the main stars. Today the move is to red varieties, especially shiraz (Zandvliet).
STELLENBOSCH is, in the minds of many, the finest wine area in South Africa, claiming the crown for reds. With a list of more than 80 wineries and producers, it is also the most expensive wine farmland. Nearly all the most famous international names in South African wines are found here in an area reaching from sea-facing slopes to valley-hugging hills. This is the home of Kanonkop, Meerlust, Rustenberg, Thelema and Warwick. The list is endless. This is also where Distell, the country’s largest player in the drinks market, is seated. Designated wards within the district are Jonkershoek Valley, Simonsberg-Stellenbosch, Bottelary, Devon Valley and Papegaaiberg. Cabernet sauvignon, merlot, pinotage and chenin blanc are the stars here.
SWARTLAND means “black country”, a traditional sunny wheat area north of Cape Town. These days, wineries are making modern, well-appreciated white wines here with top reds on the way. The Darling region especially is on the roll.
WALKER BAY near the coastal town of Hermanus has become another of the Cape’s most fashionable regions. With Elgin to the west and Bot River inland, it falls under the Overberg appellation. It is the home of Cape pinot noir and good chardonnay and home to places like Hamilton-Russell.
WORCESTER and surrounds comprise 20% of all South Africa’s vineyards. Brandy is produced, and wine for wholesalers. Small volumes are bottled under own labels. Value-for-money is a hallmark.
PAARL is another of the Cape’s historic towns where wine has been made for centuries. Home to the original KWV head office and its impressive Cathedral Cellar, as well as the country’s best-known brand Nederburg, many cellars, small and large, from boutique to co-operative, produce wine from the ordinary to the sensational. Winemakers have been concentrating on shiraz, but some fine chenin blanc, pinotage, cabernet sauvignon, blends, and even unusual varieties such as viognier and mourvèdre are turned into prize-winning wines. Glen Carlou, Villiera and the value-for-money co-operative Boland Kelders are among the top performers here.
OLIFANTS RIVER is a fast-growing region stretching a few hundred kilometres up the west coast from the Cape. Plenty of exported easy-drinking wines come from here. The Vredendal Winery is one of the largest in the world, employing some of the most modern techniques.
ORANGE RIVER is one of Africa’s great rivers and along its Northern Cape bank lie large white-wine producing vineyards. Winemaking is sophisticated and reds are getting more attention with an eye to exports.
FRANSCHHOEK: lies in a contained valley, a pretty town founded by the French Huguenots in 1688. Today it is very much a boutique region with old buildings, restaurants and small producers. Stylish cellars include La Motte, Cabrière, Plaisir de Merle and Boekenhoutskloof.
KLEIN KAROO: is a semi-desert region inland that has inspired some winemakers to take up the challenge. Fortified wines such as muscadels and Portuguese “port” styles do well in places such as Calitzdorp.
CONSTANTIA: It is the historic hub of Cape wine. Closest to Cape Town, it boasts some of the most famous estate names such as Groot and Klein Constantia, and Buitenverwachting. On premium terroir and in ideal climatic conditions, superb sauvignon blanc and semillon wines are produced
DURBANVILLE: and its hills northeast of Cape Town have a winemaking history dating back 280 years. Some star performers are emerging, including brilliant sauvignon blancs with strong contemporary focus on shiraz and merlot. Durbanville Hills is a large, modern facility and Nitida a small boutique set-up.
| Grape | Vineyards |
| Chenin Blanc | 18.7% |
| Cabernet Sauvignon | 13.1% |
| Colombard | 11.4% |
| Shiraz | 9.6% |
| Sauvignon Blanc | 8.2% |
| Chardonnay | 8.0% |
| Merlot | 6.7% |
| Pinotage | 6.2% |
Since the 1990s, interest and plantings of red grape varieties have been steadily on the rise. In the late 1990s, less than 18% of all the grapes grown in South Africa were red. By 2003 that number has risen to 40% and was still trending upwards. For most of the 21st century, the high yielding Cinsaut was the most widely planted red grape variety but the shift in focus to quality wine production has saw plantings of the grape steadily decline to where it represented just 3% of all South Africa vineyards in 2004. In its place Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz and Pinotage have risen to prominence with Cabernet Sauvignon being the most widely red grape variety covering 13% of all plantings in 2006. Other red grape varieties found in South Africa include Carignan, Gamay (often made in the style of Beaujolais wine with carbonic maceration, Grenache, Pontac, Ruby Cabernet, Tinta Barroca and Zinfandel.
There is a wide range of lesser known groups that are used to feed the country's still robust distilled spirits and fortified wine industry. These grapes usually produce bland, neutral wine that lends itself well to blending and distillation but is rarely seen as varietal bottlings. These include Belies, False Pedro, Kanaän, Raisin blanc, Sultana and Servan.
Grape varieties in South Africa are known as cultivar, with many common international varieties developing local synonyms that still have a strong tradition of use. These include Chenin blanc (Steen), Riesling (known locally as Weisser Riesling), Crouchen (known as Cape Riesling), Palomino (the grape of the Spanish wine Sherry known locally as "White French"), Trebbiano (Ugni Blanc), Sémillon (Groendruif) and Muscat of Alexandria (Hanepoot). However, wines that are often exported overseas will usually have the more internationally recognized name appear on the wine label.
In 2006, SAWIS (South African Wine Information and Systems) reported that the country had 100,146 hectares of vineyards, with about 55 percent planted to white varieties. Chenin blanc has long been the most widely planted variety, still accounting for at least one-fifth of all grape varieties planted in South Africa as of 2004 though that number is decreasing. In the 1980s and 1990s, interest in international varieties saw increase in plantings of Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc. Other white grape varieties with significant plantings include Colombard (spelled locally as Colombar), Cape Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Hannepoot, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, Riesling and Sémillon. Both red and white mutants of Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains as well as Chenel and Weldra, two Chenin blanc-Ugni blanc crossings, are used for brandy distillation and fortified wine production.
SOUTH AFRICA IS ONE FO THE WORLD’S MOST EXCITING WINE PRODUCING COUNTRIES. As of 2003, South Africa was 17th in terms of acreage planted with the country owning 1.5% of the world's grape vineyards with 270,600 acres (110,000 hectares). Yearly production among South Africa's wine regions is usually around 264 million gallons (10 million hl) which regularly puts the country among the top ten wine producing countries in the world. The majority of wine production in South Africa takes place in the Cape Province, particularly the southwest corner near the coastal region. South African wine has a history dating back to 1659, and at one time Constantia was considered one of the greatest wines in the world. Access to international markets has unleashed a burst of new energy and new investment. Production is concentrated around Cape Town, with major vineyard and production centres at Paarl, Stellenbosch and Worcester.
There are about 60 appellations within the Wine of Origin (WO) system, which was implemented in 1973 with a hierarchy of designated production regions, districts and wards. WO wines must be made 100% from grapes from the designated area. "Single vineyard" wines must come from a defined area of less than 5 hectares. An "Estate Wine" can come from adjacent farms, as long as they are farmed together and wine is produced on site. A ward is an area with a distinctive soil type and/or climate, and is roughly equivalent to a European appellation.
RED WINES
VALDEORRAS
VALDEORRAS
TORO
CAMPO DE BORJA
LA MANCHA
VALDEPENAS
RIOJA
WHITE WINES
RIAS BAJAS
RIBIERO
RUEDA
LA MANCHA
VALENCIA
ROSE WINES
NAVARRE
CIGALES
SPARKLING WINES
CORDON NEGRO
CORDON NEVADA
PENEDES
ASTURIAS
Tempranillo is the second most widely planted grape in Spain and is an important grape in the Rioja, Ribera del Duero and Penedès regions.
Crianza red wines are aged for 2 years with at least 6 months in oak. Crianza whites and rosés must be aged for at least 1 year with at least 6 months in oak.
Reserva red wines are aged for at least 3 years with at least 1 year in oak. Reserva whites and rosés must be aged for at least 2 years with at least 6 months in oak.
Gran Reserva wines typically appear in above average vintages with the red wines requiring at least 5 years ageing, 18 months of which in oak.Gran Reserva whites and rosés must be aged for at least 4 years with at least 6 months in oak.
Vino de Mesa (VdM) - These are wines that are the equivalent of most country's table wines and are made from unclassified vineyards or grapes that have been declassified through "illegal" blending. Similar to the Italian Super Tuscans from the late 20th century, some Spanish winemakers will intentionally declassify their wines so that they have greater flexibility in blending and winemaking methods.
Vinos de la Tierra (VdlT) - This level is similar to France's vin de pays system, normally corresponding to the larger comunidad autonóma geographical regions and will appear on the label with these broader geographical designations like Andalucia, Castilla La Mancha and Levante.
Vino de Calidad Producido en Región Determinada (VCPRD) - This level is similar to France's Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS) system and is considered a stepping stone towards DO status.
Denominación de Origen (Denominació d'Origen in Catalan - DO)- This level is for the mainstream quality-wine regions which are regulated by the Consejo Regulador who is also responsible for marketing the wines of that DO. In 2005, nearly two thirds of the total vineyard area in Spain was within the boundaries a DO region.
Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa/DOQ - Denominació d'Origen Qualificada in Catalan)- This designation, which is similar to Italy's Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) designation, is for regions with a track record of consistent quality and is meant to be a step above DO level. Rioja was the first region afforded this designation in 1991 and was followed by Priorat in 2003, and Ribera del Duero in 2008.
Additionally there is the Denominación de Pago (DO de Pago) designation for individual single-estates with an international reputation. As of 2009, there were 9 estates with this status.
Spanish wines are wines produced in the southwestern European country of Spain. Located on the Iberian Peninsula, Spain has over 2.9 million acres (over 1.17 million hectares) planted—making it the most widely planted wine producing nation but it is only the third largest producer of wine in the world, the largest being Italy and France. This is due, in part, to the very low yields and wide spacing of the old vines planted on the dry, infertile soil found in many Spanish wine regions. The country is ninth in worldwide consumptions with Spaniards drinking, on average, 10.06 gallons (38 liters) a year. The country has an abundance of native grape varieties, with over 600 varieties planted throughout Spain though 80 percent of the country's wine production is from only 20 grapes—including Tempranillo, Albariño, Garnacha, Palomino, Airen, Macabeo, Parellada, Xarel·lo, Cariñena and Monastrell. Major Spanish wine regions include the Rioja and Ribera del Duero which is known for their Tempranillo production; Jerez, the home of the fortified wine Sherry; Rías Baixas in the northwest region of Galicia that is known for its white wines made from Albariño and Catalonia which includes the Cava and still wine producing regions of the Penedès as well the Priorat region.
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• Beedi are thin, often flavored, south Asian cigarettes made of tobacco wrapped in a tendu leaf, and secured with colored thread at one end.
• Chewing tobacco is one of the oldest ways of consuming tobacco leaves. It is consumed orally, in two forms: through sweetened strands, or in a shredded form. When consuming the long sweetened strands the tobacco is lightly chewed and compacted into a ball. When consuming the shredded tobacco, small amounts are placed at the bottom lip, between the gum and the teeth, where it is gently compacted, thus it can oftentimes be called dipping tobacco. Both methods stimulate the salve glands, which led to the development of the spittoon.
• Cigars are tightly rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco which is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the smoker's mouth.
• Cigarettes are a product consumed through the inhalation of smoke and manufactured out of cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives, then rolled or stuffed into a paper-wrapped cylinder.
• Creamy snuff are tobacco paste, consisting of tobacco, clove oil, glycerin, spearmint, menthol, and camphor, and sold in a toothpaste tube. It is marketed mainly to women in India, and is known by the brand names Ipco (made by Asha Industries), Denobac, Tona, Ganesh. It is locally known as "mishri" in some parts of Maharashtra.
• Dipping tobacco are a form of smokeless tobacco. Dip is occasionally referred to as "chew", and because of this, it is commonly confused with chewing tobacco, which encompasses a wider range of products. A small clump of dip is 'pinched' out of the tin and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums.
• Electronic cigarette is an alternative to tobacco smoking, although no tobacco is consumed. It is a battery-powered device that provides inhaled doses of nicotine by delivering a vaporized propylene glycol/nicotine solution.
• Gutka are a preparation of crushed betel nut, tobacco, and sweet or savory flavorings. It is manufactured in India and exported to a few other countries. A mild stimulant, it is sold across India in small, individual-size packets.
• Hookah are a single or multi-stemmed (often glass-based) water pipe for smoking. Originally from India, the hookah has gained immense popularity, especially in the middle east. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking herbal fruits, tobacco, or cannabis.
• Kreteks are cigarettes made with a complex blend of tobacco, cloves and a flavoring "sauce". It was first introduced in the 1880s in Kudus, Java, to deliver the medicinal eugenol of cloves to the lungs.
• Roll-Your-Own, often called rollies or roll ups, are very popular particularly in European countries. These are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers and filters all bought separately. They are usually much cheaper to make.
• Pipe smoking typically consists of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (the bit). Shredded pieces of tobacco are placed into the chamber and ignited.
• Snuff are a generic term for fine-ground smokeless tobacco products. Originally the term referred only to dry snuff, a fine tan dust popular mainly in the eighteenth century. Snuff powder originated in the UK town of Great Harwood and was famously ground in the town's monument prior to local distribution and transport further up north to Scotland. There are two major varieties which include European (dry) and American (moist); although American snuff is often referred to as dipping tobacco.
• Snus is steam-cured moist powder tobacco product that is not fermented and does not induce salivation. It is consumed by placing it in the mouth against the gums for an extended period of time. It is a form of snuff that is used in a manner similar to American dipping tobacco, but does not require regular spitting.
• Topical tobacco paste are sometimes recommended as a treatment for wasp, hornet, fire ant, scorpion, and bee stings. An amount equivalent to the contents of a cigarette is mashed in a cup with about a 0.5 to 1 teaspoon of water to make a paste that is then applied to the affected area.
• Tobacco water are traditional organic insecticide used in domestic gardening. Tobacco dust can be used similarly. It is produced by boiling strong tobacco in water, or by steeping the tobacco in water for a longer period. When cooled the mixture can be applied as a spray, or 'painted' on to the leaves of garden plants, where it will prove deadly to insects.
• Chewing tobacco is one of the oldest ways of consuming tobacco leaves. It is consumed orally, in two forms: through sweetened strands, or in a shredded form. When consuming the long sweetened strands the tobacco is lightly chewed and compacted into a ball. When consuming the shredded tobacco, small amounts are placed at the bottom lip, between the gum and the teeth, where it is gently compacted, thus it can oftentimes be called dipping tobacco. Both methods stimulate the salve glands, which led to the development of the spittoon.
• Cigars are tightly rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco which is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the smoker's mouth.
• Cigarettes are a product consumed through the inhalation of smoke and manufactured out of cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives, then rolled or stuffed into a paper-wrapped cylinder.
• Creamy snuff are tobacco paste, consisting of tobacco, clove oil, glycerin, spearmint, menthol, and camphor, and sold in a toothpaste tube. It is marketed mainly to women in India, and is known by the brand names Ipco (made by Asha Industries), Denobac, Tona, Ganesh. It is locally known as "mishri" in some parts of Maharashtra.
• Dipping tobacco are a form of smokeless tobacco. Dip is occasionally referred to as "chew", and because of this, it is commonly confused with chewing tobacco, which encompasses a wider range of products. A small clump of dip is 'pinched' out of the tin and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums.
• Electronic cigarette is an alternative to tobacco smoking, although no tobacco is consumed. It is a battery-powered device that provides inhaled doses of nicotine by delivering a vaporized propylene glycol/nicotine solution.
• Gutka are a preparation of crushed betel nut, tobacco, and sweet or savory flavorings. It is manufactured in India and exported to a few other countries. A mild stimulant, it is sold across India in small, individual-size packets.
• Hookah are a single or multi-stemmed (often glass-based) water pipe for smoking. Originally from India, the hookah has gained immense popularity, especially in the middle east. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking herbal fruits, tobacco, or cannabis.
• Kreteks are cigarettes made with a complex blend of tobacco, cloves and a flavoring "sauce". It was first introduced in the 1880s in Kudus, Java, to deliver the medicinal eugenol of cloves to the lungs.
• Roll-Your-Own, often called rollies or roll ups, are very popular particularly in European countries. These are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers and filters all bought separately. They are usually much cheaper to make.
• Pipe smoking typically consists of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (the bit). Shredded pieces of tobacco are placed into the chamber and ignited.
• Snuff are a generic term for fine-ground smokeless tobacco products. Originally the term referred only to dry snuff, a fine tan dust popular mainly in the eighteenth century. Snuff powder originated in the UK town of Great Harwood and was famously ground in the town's monument prior to local distribution and transport further up north to Scotland. There are two major varieties which include European (dry) and American (moist); although American snuff is often referred to as dipping tobacco.
• Snus is steam-cured moist powder tobacco product that is not fermented and does not induce salivation. It is consumed by placing it in the mouth against the gums for an extended period of time. It is a form of snuff that is used in a manner similar to American dipping tobacco, but does not require regular spitting.
• Topical tobacco paste are sometimes recommended as a treatment for wasp, hornet, fire ant, scorpion, and bee stings. An amount equivalent to the contents of a cigarette is mashed in a cup with about a 0.5 to 1 teaspoon of water to make a paste that is then applied to the affected area.
• Tobacco water are traditional organic insecticide used in domestic gardening. Tobacco dust can be used similarly. It is produced by boiling strong tobacco in water, or by steeping the tobacco in water for a longer period. When cooled the mixture can be applied as a spray, or 'painted' on to the leaves of garden plants, where it will prove deadly to insects.
Curing and subsequent aging allows for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves very similar and give a sweet hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavor that contribute to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar which glycates protein and is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer.[27] Levels of AGE's is dependent on the curing method used.
Tobacco can be cured through several methods which include but are not limited to:
• Air cured tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, sweet flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are air cured.
• Fire cured tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on continuous or intermittent low smoulder and takes between three days and ten weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco. . Fire curing produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire cured.
• Flue cured tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from tier-poles in curing barns (Aus: kilns, also traditionally called Oasts). These barns have flues which run from externally fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of the curing. The process will generally take about a week. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine.
• Sun-cured tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Turkey, Greece and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes.
Tobacco can be cured through several methods which include but are not limited to:
• Air cured tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, sweet flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are air cured.
• Fire cured tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on continuous or intermittent low smoulder and takes between three days and ten weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco. . Fire curing produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire cured.
• Flue cured tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from tier-poles in curing barns (Aus: kilns, also traditionally called Oasts). These barns have flues which run from externally fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of the curing. The process will generally take about a week. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine.
• Sun-cured tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Turkey, Greece and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes.
Tobacco is cultivated similar to other agricultural products. Seeds were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from flea beetles (Epitrix cucumeris or Epitrix pubescens), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890 successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin fabric. Today, tobacco is sown in cold frames or hotbeds, as their germination is activated by light.
In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite, which partially starves the plant of nitrogen to produce a more desired flavor. Apatite, however, contains radium, lead 210, and polonium 210—which are known radioactive carcinogens.
After the plants have reached relative maturity, they are transplanted into the fields, in which a relatively large hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg. Various mechanical tobacco planters where invented in the nineteenth and twentieth to automate the process: making the hole, fertilizing it, guiding the plant in—all in one motion.
Tobacco is cultivated annual, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a sickle. In the nineteenth century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco may go through several so-called "pullings," more commonly known as topping (topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically removed and, eventually, entirely harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, harvesting wagons used to transport leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus which used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times large fields are harvested by a single piece of farm equipment, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand.
In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite, which partially starves the plant of nitrogen to produce a more desired flavor. Apatite, however, contains radium, lead 210, and polonium 210—which are known radioactive carcinogens.
After the plants have reached relative maturity, they are transplanted into the fields, in which a relatively large hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg. Various mechanical tobacco planters where invented in the nineteenth and twentieth to automate the process: making the hole, fertilizing it, guiding the plant in—all in one motion.
Tobacco is cultivated annual, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a sickle. In the nineteenth century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco may go through several so-called "pullings," more commonly known as topping (topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically removed and, eventually, entirely harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, harvesting wagons used to transport leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus which used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times large fields are harvested by a single piece of farm equipment, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand.
There are many species of tobacco, which are encompassed by the genus of herbs Nicotiana. It is part of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa and the South Pacific.
Many plants contain nicotine, a powerful neurotoxin that is particularly harmful to insects. However, tobaccos contain a higher concentration of nicotine than most other plants. Unlike many other Solanaceae they do not contain tropane alkaloids, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals.
Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores, a number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species and therefore some tobacco plants (chiefly Tree Tobacco, N. glauca) have become established as invasive weeds in some places.
There are a number of types of tobacco include but are not limited to:
• Aromatic Fire-cured, it is cured by smoke from open fires. In the United States, it is grown in northern middle Tennessee, central Kentucky and in Virginia. Fire-cured tobacco grown in Kentucky and Tennessee are used in some chewing tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes, and as a condiment in pipe tobacco blends. Another fire-cured tobacco is Latakia and is produced from oriental varieties of N. tabacum. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in Cyprus and Syria.
• Brightleaf tobacco, Brightleaf is commonly known as "Virginia tobacco", often regardless of which state they are planted. Prior to the American Civil War, most tobacco grown in the US was fire-cured dark-leaf. This type of tobacco was planted in fertile lowlands, used a robust variety of leaf, and was either fire cured or air cured. Most Canadian cigarettes are made from 100% pure Virginia tobacco.[14]
• Burley tobacco, is an air-cured tobacco used primarily for cigarette production. In the U.S., burley tobacco plants are started from palletized seeds placed in polystyrene trays floated on a bed of fertilized water in March or April.
• Cavendish is more a process of curing and a method of cutting tobacco than a type of it. The processing and the cut are used to bring out the natural sweet taste in the tobacco. Cavendish can be produced out of any tobacco type but is usually one of, or a blend of Kentucky, Virginia, and Burley and is most commonly used for pipe tobacco and cigars.
• Criollo tobacco is a type of tobacco, primarily used in the making of cigars. It was, by most accounts, one of the original Cuban tobaccos that emerged around the time of Columbus.
• Dokham, is a tobacco of Iranian origin mixed with leaves, bark, and herbs for smoking in a midwakh.
• Oriental tobacco, is a sun-cured, highly aromatic, small-leafed variety (Nicotiana tabacum) that is grown in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and Macedonia. Oriental tobacco is frequently referred to as "Turkish tobacco", as these regions were all historically part of the Ottoman Empire. Many of the early brands of cigarettes were made mostly or entirely of Oriental tobacco; today, its main use is in blends of pipe and especially cigarette tobacco (a typical American cigarette is a blend of bright Virginia, burley and Oriental).
• Perique, A farmer called Pierre Chenet is credited with first turning this local tobacco into the Perique in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation. Considered the truffle of pipe tobaccos, it is used as a component in many blended pipe tobaccos, but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time, the freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but none is now sold for this purpose. It is typically blended with pure Virginia to lend spice, strength, and coolness to the blend.
• Shade tobacco, is cultivated in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Early Connecticut colonists acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking tobacco in pipes and began cultivating the plant commercially, even though the Puritans referred to it as the "evil weed". The industry has weathered some major catastrophes, including a devastating hailstorm in 1929, and an epidemic of brown spot fungus in 2000, but is now in danger of disappearing altogether, given the value of the land to real estate speculators.
• White Burley, In 1865, George Webb of Brown County, Ohio planted Red Burley seeds he had purchased, and found that a few of the seedlings had a whitish, sickly look. The air-cured leaf was found to be more mild than other types of tobacco.
• Wild Tobacco, is native to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and parts of South America. Its botanical name is Nicotiana rustica.
• Y1 is a strain of tobacco that was cross-bred by Brown & Williamson to obtain an unusually high nicotine content. It became controversial in the 1990s when the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) used it as evidence that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.
Many plants contain nicotine, a powerful neurotoxin that is particularly harmful to insects. However, tobaccos contain a higher concentration of nicotine than most other plants. Unlike many other Solanaceae they do not contain tropane alkaloids, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals.
Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores, a number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species and therefore some tobacco plants (chiefly Tree Tobacco, N. glauca) have become established as invasive weeds in some places.
There are a number of types of tobacco include but are not limited to:
• Aromatic Fire-cured, it is cured by smoke from open fires. In the United States, it is grown in northern middle Tennessee, central Kentucky and in Virginia. Fire-cured tobacco grown in Kentucky and Tennessee are used in some chewing tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes, and as a condiment in pipe tobacco blends. Another fire-cured tobacco is Latakia and is produced from oriental varieties of N. tabacum. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in Cyprus and Syria.
• Brightleaf tobacco, Brightleaf is commonly known as "Virginia tobacco", often regardless of which state they are planted. Prior to the American Civil War, most tobacco grown in the US was fire-cured dark-leaf. This type of tobacco was planted in fertile lowlands, used a robust variety of leaf, and was either fire cured or air cured. Most Canadian cigarettes are made from 100% pure Virginia tobacco.[14]
• Burley tobacco, is an air-cured tobacco used primarily for cigarette production. In the U.S., burley tobacco plants are started from palletized seeds placed in polystyrene trays floated on a bed of fertilized water in March or April.
• Cavendish is more a process of curing and a method of cutting tobacco than a type of it. The processing and the cut are used to bring out the natural sweet taste in the tobacco. Cavendish can be produced out of any tobacco type but is usually one of, or a blend of Kentucky, Virginia, and Burley and is most commonly used for pipe tobacco and cigars.
• Criollo tobacco is a type of tobacco, primarily used in the making of cigars. It was, by most accounts, one of the original Cuban tobaccos that emerged around the time of Columbus.
• Dokham, is a tobacco of Iranian origin mixed with leaves, bark, and herbs for smoking in a midwakh.
• Oriental tobacco, is a sun-cured, highly aromatic, small-leafed variety (Nicotiana tabacum) that is grown in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and Macedonia. Oriental tobacco is frequently referred to as "Turkish tobacco", as these regions were all historically part of the Ottoman Empire. Many of the early brands of cigarettes were made mostly or entirely of Oriental tobacco; today, its main use is in blends of pipe and especially cigarette tobacco (a typical American cigarette is a blend of bright Virginia, burley and Oriental).
• Perique, A farmer called Pierre Chenet is credited with first turning this local tobacco into the Perique in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation. Considered the truffle of pipe tobaccos, it is used as a component in many blended pipe tobaccos, but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time, the freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but none is now sold for this purpose. It is typically blended with pure Virginia to lend spice, strength, and coolness to the blend.
• Shade tobacco, is cultivated in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Early Connecticut colonists acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking tobacco in pipes and began cultivating the plant commercially, even though the Puritans referred to it as the "evil weed". The industry has weathered some major catastrophes, including a devastating hailstorm in 1929, and an epidemic of brown spot fungus in 2000, but is now in danger of disappearing altogether, given the value of the land to real estate speculators.
• White Burley, In 1865, George Webb of Brown County, Ohio planted Red Burley seeds he had purchased, and found that a few of the seedlings had a whitish, sickly look. The air-cured leaf was found to be more mild than other types of tobacco.
• Wild Tobacco, is native to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and parts of South America. Its botanical name is Nicotiana rustica.
• Y1 is a strain of tobacco that was cross-bred by Brown & Williamson to obtain an unusually high nicotine content. It became controversial in the 1990s when the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) used it as evidence that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.
The Spanish word "tabaco" is thought to have its origin in Arawakan language, particularly, in the Taino language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to refer either to a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolome de Las Casas, 1552), or to the tabago, a kind of Y-shaped pipe for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo; with the leaves themselves being referred to as Cohiba).[7]
However, similar words in Spanish and Italian were commonly used from 1410 to define medicinal herbs, originating from the Arabic tabbaq, a word reportedly dating to the 9th century, as the name of various herbs
However, similar words in Spanish and Italian were commonly used from 1410 to define medicinal herbs, originating from the Arabic tabbaq, a word reportedly dating to the 9th century, as the name of various herbs
Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the fresh leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can be consumed, used as an organic pesticide, and in the form of nicotine tartrate it is used in some medicines. In consumption it may be in the form of smoking, chewing, snuffing, dipping tobacco, or snus. Tobacco has long been in use as an entheogen in the Americas. However, upon the arrival of Europeans in North America, it quickly became popularized as a trade item and as a recreational drug. This popularization led to the development of the southern economy of the United States until it gave way to cotton. Following the American Civil War, a change in demand and a change in labor force allowed for the development of the cigarette. This new product quickly led to the growth of tobacco companies until the scientific controversy of the mid-1900s.
There are many species of tobacco, which are all encompassed by the plant genus Nicotiana. The word nicotiana (as well as nicotine) was named in honor of Jean Nicot, French ambassador to Portugal, who in 1559 sent it as a medicine to the court of Catherine de Medici.
Because of the addictive properties of nicotine, tolerance and dependence develop. Absorption quantity, frequency, and speed of tobacco consumption are believed to be directly related to biological strength of nicotine dependence, addiction, and tolerance. The usage of tobacco is an activity that is practiced by some 1.1 billion people, and up to 1/3 of the adult population. The World Health Organization reports it to be the leading preventable cause of death worldwide and estimates that it currently causes 5.4 million deaths per year. Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in developed countries, however they continue to rise in developing countries.
Tobacco is cultivated similar to other agricultural products. Seeds are sown in cold frames or hotbeds to prevent attacks from insects, and then transplanted into the fields. Tobacco is an annual crop, which is usually harvested in a large single-piece farm equipment. After harvest, tobacco is stored to allow for curing, which allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids. This allows for the agricultural product to take on properties that are usually attributed to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Following this, tobacco is packed into its various forms of consumption which include smoking, chewing, sniffing, and so on.
There are many species of tobacco, which are all encompassed by the plant genus Nicotiana. The word nicotiana (as well as nicotine) was named in honor of Jean Nicot, French ambassador to Portugal, who in 1559 sent it as a medicine to the court of Catherine de Medici.
Because of the addictive properties of nicotine, tolerance and dependence develop. Absorption quantity, frequency, and speed of tobacco consumption are believed to be directly related to biological strength of nicotine dependence, addiction, and tolerance. The usage of tobacco is an activity that is practiced by some 1.1 billion people, and up to 1/3 of the adult population. The World Health Organization reports it to be the leading preventable cause of death worldwide and estimates that it currently causes 5.4 million deaths per year. Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in developed countries, however they continue to rise in developing countries.
Tobacco is cultivated similar to other agricultural products. Seeds are sown in cold frames or hotbeds to prevent attacks from insects, and then transplanted into the fields. Tobacco is an annual crop, which is usually harvested in a large single-piece farm equipment. After harvest, tobacco is stored to allow for curing, which allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids. This allows for the agricultural product to take on properties that are usually attributed to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Following this, tobacco is packed into its various forms of consumption which include smoking, chewing, sniffing, and so on.
i) Forgetting to great the arriving customer pleasantly.
ii) Letting guests seat themselves, inspite of being present near the table and not otherwise engaged.
iii) Refusing to assist a guest or seating a guest at a dirty table.
iv) Serving from the wrong side, when it is possible to serve from the correct side
v) Not setting tables properly and placing empty sugar bowls / cruet sets on the table.
vi) Forgetting to say 'Pardon me', or 'Excuse me, sir / madam, if a mistake has been made.
vii) Being too familiar with guests. This could lead to embarrassing situations.
viii) Gathering in groups in operational areas and talking loudly and showing signs of irritability with other members of the staff.
ix) Leaving fingerprints on crockery / glassware or making a noise by clattering the service equipment.
x) Keeping the side station dirty or using torn or stained linen.
xi) Forgetting a dish that has been ordered, or serving wrong accompaniments.
xii) Overfilling water glasses or leaving them empty or leaving dirty ashtrays on an occupied table.
xiii) Being inattentive to a guest's needs, for example, forgetting special instructions from the guest, such as less chillies or no onions in the food
xiv) Using cold plates for hot food and hot plates for cold food.
xv) Touching food with one's hands.
xvi) Not following the rules of quality waiting at table.
xvii) Soliciting tips or questioning the amount of tips.
ii) Letting guests seat themselves, inspite of being present near the table and not otherwise engaged.
iii) Refusing to assist a guest or seating a guest at a dirty table.
iv) Serving from the wrong side, when it is possible to serve from the correct side
v) Not setting tables properly and placing empty sugar bowls / cruet sets on the table.
vi) Forgetting to say 'Pardon me', or 'Excuse me, sir / madam, if a mistake has been made.
vii) Being too familiar with guests. This could lead to embarrassing situations.
viii) Gathering in groups in operational areas and talking loudly and showing signs of irritability with other members of the staff.
ix) Leaving fingerprints on crockery / glassware or making a noise by clattering the service equipment.
x) Keeping the side station dirty or using torn or stained linen.
xi) Forgetting a dish that has been ordered, or serving wrong accompaniments.
xii) Overfilling water glasses or leaving them empty or leaving dirty ashtrays on an occupied table.
xiii) Being inattentive to a guest's needs, for example, forgetting special instructions from the guest, such as less chillies or no onions in the food
xiv) Using cold plates for hot food and hot plates for cold food.
xv) Touching food with one's hands.
xvi) Not following the rules of quality waiting at table.
xvii) Soliciting tips or questioning the amount of tips.
The quality of service staff in any establishment reflects the quality of the establishment itself. No matter how good the food and ambience are, poorly trained, untidy or rude staff can antagonize
customers. On the other hand, if the staffs are well-trained and efficient, they can, to a certain extent, make up for other shortcomings in the services provided.
1) Personal Hygiene and Appearance
· All members of the staff should be well-groomed and clean at all times, as this gives them a sense of well-being and confidence to do their job efficiently.
· The hands of the waiting staff should be given special attention, as they are constantly under the scrutiny of the guests. Nails should be trimmed, and kept clean. Playing with one's hair and face should be avoided.
· Chewing gum should be avoided in all public areas of the hotel.
· Minimum jewellery should be worn by the service staff. A wrist watch, finger ring and plain earrings (for girls only) should be permitted.
· If an employee has a skin problem, a doctor should be consulted immediately
· Uniform should be clean and well-pressed. Shoes should be properly polished and well-fitting.
2) Good Conduct All service staff should be well-mannered and respectful to guests, and to senior members of the staff. They should be calm and pleasant, even in the most tiring circumstances. They
should be able to satisfactorily solve any problem that may arise. In case of difficulty, a senior and experienced member of the staff should be consulted. Tact, punctuality and honesty are admirable qualities among service personnel.
3) Good Memory A good memory helps to improve performance. It also helps the service personnel to attend to small but important details such as remembering a guest's name or his likes and dislikes regarding food and beverage.
4) Observation A keen sense of observation and an eye for detail will help a member of the staff to be more efficient at his job. An ability to correctly judge people is definitely an advantage. A sense of anticipation in the service industry is an invaluable quality. The ability to anticipate what a guest or the management needs, even before it is asked for creates a very good impression.
5) Concentration and Skill Waiting at a table requires concentration and skill. Service staff should develop a sense of urgency in the performance of their duties. Good service may not be commented upon, but bad service is surely noticed and talked about. Service should be prompt without the show of haste.
6) Salesmanship Food and beverage service personnel are technical salespersons; hence they should have a thorough knowledge of the proper presentation and service of all the food and beverages served in the establishment. Waiters should be kept informed by their superiors of deletions or additions to the menu.
7) Ability to Assume Responsibility All service staff should be able to cope up with the demands of the job and possess the ability to assume responsibility. They should be loyal to their employers, responsible to the guests and friendly towards their fellow workers. They should not consider any job as menial, and should be willing to perform all kinds of jobs efficiently. This will help the service staff to grow in their careers and at the same time enhance the image of the establishment in the eyes of the guests.
8) Maximise Revenue Cutting down on costs and maximising the revenue of the establishment should be of prime objective to all members of the staff, even to those in junior positions.
9) Punctuality Punctuality is all-important. If staff is continually late for duty, it shows a lack of interest in his work and a lack of respect for the management and customers.
10) Local Knowledge In the interest of customers, the staff should have a certain knowledge of the area in which they work so that they may be able to advise the guests on the various forms of entertainment offered, the best means of transport to places of interest and so on.
11) Personality Staff must be tactful, courteous, good humoured and of an even temper. They must converse with the customer in a pleasing and well-spoken manner and the ability to smile at the
right time.
12) Attitude to Customers The correct approach towards the customer is of the utmost importance. The staff must not be servile, but should anticipate the customer's needs and wishes. A careful watch
should be kept on customers at all times during the service without staring. Care should always be taken when dealing with difficult customers. (There is really no such thing as a 'difficult' customer – they are normal people whom one is uncertain how to deal with.) Staff should never argue with
customers as this will only aggravate the situation. All complaints should he referred to someone in authority in the food service area.
13) Honesty This is all-important for the staff in dealings with both the customer and the management. If there is trust and respect in the triangle of staff, customer and management relationships, then there will be pleasant work atmosphere which encourages efficiency and a good team spirit among the food and beverage service operators.
customers. On the other hand, if the staffs are well-trained and efficient, they can, to a certain extent, make up for other shortcomings in the services provided.
1) Personal Hygiene and Appearance
· All members of the staff should be well-groomed and clean at all times, as this gives them a sense of well-being and confidence to do their job efficiently.
· The hands of the waiting staff should be given special attention, as they are constantly under the scrutiny of the guests. Nails should be trimmed, and kept clean. Playing with one's hair and face should be avoided.
· Chewing gum should be avoided in all public areas of the hotel.
· Minimum jewellery should be worn by the service staff. A wrist watch, finger ring and plain earrings (for girls only) should be permitted.
· If an employee has a skin problem, a doctor should be consulted immediately
· Uniform should be clean and well-pressed. Shoes should be properly polished and well-fitting.
2) Good Conduct All service staff should be well-mannered and respectful to guests, and to senior members of the staff. They should be calm and pleasant, even in the most tiring circumstances. They
should be able to satisfactorily solve any problem that may arise. In case of difficulty, a senior and experienced member of the staff should be consulted. Tact, punctuality and honesty are admirable qualities among service personnel.
3) Good Memory A good memory helps to improve performance. It also helps the service personnel to attend to small but important details such as remembering a guest's name or his likes and dislikes regarding food and beverage.
4) Observation A keen sense of observation and an eye for detail will help a member of the staff to be more efficient at his job. An ability to correctly judge people is definitely an advantage. A sense of anticipation in the service industry is an invaluable quality. The ability to anticipate what a guest or the management needs, even before it is asked for creates a very good impression.
5) Concentration and Skill Waiting at a table requires concentration and skill. Service staff should develop a sense of urgency in the performance of their duties. Good service may not be commented upon, but bad service is surely noticed and talked about. Service should be prompt without the show of haste.
6) Salesmanship Food and beverage service personnel are technical salespersons; hence they should have a thorough knowledge of the proper presentation and service of all the food and beverages served in the establishment. Waiters should be kept informed by their superiors of deletions or additions to the menu.
7) Ability to Assume Responsibility All service staff should be able to cope up with the demands of the job and possess the ability to assume responsibility. They should be loyal to their employers, responsible to the guests and friendly towards their fellow workers. They should not consider any job as menial, and should be willing to perform all kinds of jobs efficiently. This will help the service staff to grow in their careers and at the same time enhance the image of the establishment in the eyes of the guests.
8) Maximise Revenue Cutting down on costs and maximising the revenue of the establishment should be of prime objective to all members of the staff, even to those in junior positions.
9) Punctuality Punctuality is all-important. If staff is continually late for duty, it shows a lack of interest in his work and a lack of respect for the management and customers.
10) Local Knowledge In the interest of customers, the staff should have a certain knowledge of the area in which they work so that they may be able to advise the guests on the various forms of entertainment offered, the best means of transport to places of interest and so on.
11) Personality Staff must be tactful, courteous, good humoured and of an even temper. They must converse with the customer in a pleasing and well-spoken manner and the ability to smile at the
right time.
12) Attitude to Customers The correct approach towards the customer is of the utmost importance. The staff must not be servile, but should anticipate the customer's needs and wishes. A careful watch
should be kept on customers at all times during the service without staring. Care should always be taken when dealing with difficult customers. (There is really no such thing as a 'difficult' customer – they are normal people whom one is uncertain how to deal with.) Staff should never argue with
customers as this will only aggravate the situation. All complaints should he referred to someone in authority in the food service area.
13) Honesty This is all-important for the staff in dealings with both the customer and the management. If there is trust and respect in the triangle of staff, customer and management relationships, then there will be pleasant work atmosphere which encourages efficiency and a good team spirit among the food and beverage service operators.
The duties of waiting staff include preparing tables (table setting) for a meal, taking customers' orders, serving drinks and food, and cleaning up before, during and after servings in a restaurant. He must have knowledge of proper rules of etiquette in order to furnish working service in either a formal or informal sitting. Other task of a waiter includes:
1. Reports to Senior Captain / Captain to receive necessary instruction for the shift and for any menu changes.
2. Has to attend briefings conducted by senior captain.
3. Sets the assigned tables and ensures that the services area too is well-stocked with linen, silver, glassware, china etc. Sets up any special displays that be used for the meal period.
4. Greets guests and sometimes assists the host/ hostess in seating guest. Fills water glasses, serves butter, cocktails, answers questions about menu items and makes suggestions about dishes and wine if the customer requests or desires.
5. Takes orders on check, turns or gives over with specification the order to the cooks with consideration to the timing of the preceding courses. Picks up all food and all other required items from various stations.
6. May carve meats, bone fish and prepare flaming dishes or desserts at guest’s table. He may assist Senior Captain for the same.
7. May serve guests from plates to the guest’s table.
8. Other tasks to be performed as determined by establishment from time to time.
9. Replenishes wine, water, butter, and bread as and when required.
10. Observes the guests in order to anticipate any additional request and to perceive when the meal has been completed.
11. After all the guests have finished each course and before the next one is served, the waiter/ waitress should remove all soiled dishes or ensure that the assistant stewatard does it.
12. When guests have finished the meal, the table is cleared and reset and ready for the next customer.
13. Performs other tasks as directed by the supervisor. Depending on the restaurant, other less common duties may be required, such as singing birthday songs to customers who are celebrating a birthday. A theme restaurant may even require staff to dance (e.g. Joe's Crab Shack). There are now event caterers that outsource waiting staff to events and specific functions. Silver service staffs are specially trained to serve at banquets or high-end restaurants. They follow specific rules of service and it is a skilled / specialized job. They generally wear black and white with a long, white apron (extending from the waist to ankle).
2. Has to attend briefings conducted by senior captain.
3. Sets the assigned tables and ensures that the services area too is well-stocked with linen, silver, glassware, china etc. Sets up any special displays that be used for the meal period.
4. Greets guests and sometimes assists the host/ hostess in seating guest. Fills water glasses, serves butter, cocktails, answers questions about menu items and makes suggestions about dishes and wine if the customer requests or desires.
5. Takes orders on check, turns or gives over with specification the order to the cooks with consideration to the timing of the preceding courses. Picks up all food and all other required items from various stations.
6. May carve meats, bone fish and prepare flaming dishes or desserts at guest’s table. He may assist Senior Captain for the same.
7. May serve guests from plates to the guest’s table.
8. Other tasks to be performed as determined by establishment from time to time.
9. Replenishes wine, water, butter, and bread as and when required.
10. Observes the guests in order to anticipate any additional request and to perceive when the meal has been completed.
11. After all the guests have finished each course and before the next one is served, the waiter/ waitress should remove all soiled dishes or ensure that the assistant stewatard does it.
12. When guests have finished the meal, the table is cleared and reset and ready for the next customer.
13. Performs other tasks as directed by the supervisor. Depending on the restaurant, other less common duties may be required, such as singing birthday songs to customers who are celebrating a birthday. A theme restaurant may even require staff to dance (e.g. Joe's Crab Shack). There are now event caterers that outsource waiting staff to events and specific functions. Silver service staffs are specially trained to serve at banquets or high-end restaurants. They follow specific rules of service and it is a skilled / specialized job. They generally wear black and white with a long, white apron (extending from the waist to ankle).
Waiting staff, wait staff, or waitstaff are those who work at a restaurant or a bar attending customers - supplying them with food and drink as requested promptly and pleasantly. The waiter is popularly known as a Steward or Commis-de-Rang. A female who "waits" on tables is often called a waitress. The gender-neutral server and collective waitstaff can also be used.
Some people prefer to use gender-neutral language, using waiter indiscriminately for males and females, waitperson, server, or waitron.
The English writer, Wilfred Gowers-Round, wrote a number of
‘Rules for Waiters’ that he called a ‘Manifesto.’
· A waiter's job is to serve and never to impose himself.
· The goal of waiting is inconspicuous but pleasing service.
· Waiters must be clean and smart and should never wear cologne.
· Under no circumstances should a waiter ever touch a diner.
· Wine glasses should never be filled too full.
· Unasked for advice should never be offered.
· If diners are content to pour the wine themselves, let them.
· Unless asked, no plates should be removed until all have been finished.
· Women diners should be afforded respect equal to men.
· While attending to the customer, the waiter should make sure the diner’s coffee cup / water goblet, bread basket, butter, sugar, cream and clean ashray are kept full at all times.
· The bill should be placed on the table without ceremony.
· If the diner so desires, the waiter should carry the money to the cash counter, pay the bill and return the balace to the diner.
‘Rules for Waiters’ that he called a ‘Manifesto.’
· A waiter's job is to serve and never to impose himself.
· The goal of waiting is inconspicuous but pleasing service.
· Waiters must be clean and smart and should never wear cologne.
· Under no circumstances should a waiter ever touch a diner.
· Wine glasses should never be filled too full.
· Unasked for advice should never be offered.
· If diners are content to pour the wine themselves, let them.
· Unless asked, no plates should be removed until all have been finished.
· Women diners should be afforded respect equal to men.
· While attending to the customer, the waiter should make sure the diner’s coffee cup / water goblet, bread basket, butter, sugar, cream and clean ashray are kept full at all times.
· The bill should be placed on the table without ceremony.
· If the diner so desires, the waiter should carry the money to the cash counter, pay the bill and return the balace to the diner.
A successful restaurant is one which the guests are anxious to visit again, a place where they feel as comfortable as in their own homes. This pleasant atmosphere is produced by courtesy; good well-cooked food; advice in selecting from the available dishes; a knowledge of how they are prepared; and quiet, efficient, but unostentatious, service. It is by these amenities that both buyer and seller are satisfied and goodwill of the business increased. At the end of the visit the customer is made to feel that he got his money’s worth in terms of both quality food and courteous service.
Good waiters are necessary to the success and development of the hotel and catering industry. Waiters play an important part as, in effect, an efficient salesman of food, one who assists materially in merchandising and its accompanying services. Waiter is in direct contact with the guests and therefore much of catering establishment’s success depends on the skills, interest and personable qualities of the waiter. The waiters are prompted to develop tact and initiative and by keeping their brains active and reveal their personality.
v) Trainee / Commis De Barraseur
The trainees work closely with the waiters, fetching orders from the kitchen and the bar, and clearing the side station in a restaurant. They serve water and assist the waiter. They are mainly responsible for the mise-en-place, and stacking the side board with the necessary equipment for service. The
debarrasseur is the ‘learner’, having just joined the food service staff, and possibly wishing to take up food service as a carreer.
vi) Wine Waiter / Sommelier
Wine waiters have an important role to play in reputed establishments. Their job is to take orders for the service of wine and alcoholic beverages and serve them during the meal. Hence they should be knowledgeable about wines that accompany a particular dish and the manner in which they should be served. They should also be aware of the licensing laws prevalent in the city and should be efficient sales persons.
vii) Room Service Waiters / Chef D’etage
Room service waiters work in the room service outlet, serving food and beverage to guests in their rooms. The order is placed by the guest on telephone, and is recorded on a Kitchen Order Ticket (K.O.T). It is then passed on to the duty captain. The duty captain in turn places the order in the
kitchen or the bar, as the case may be. The room service waiter who has been assigned that order, sets the tray according to the food or beverage ordered, picks up and delivers the order when it is ready.
viii) Carver / Trancheur
The carver is responsible for the carving trolley and the carving of joints at the table as required. The carver will plate up each portion with the appropriate accompaniment.
ix) Floor Service Staff / Floor Waiter
The floor service staffs are often responsible for an entire floor in an establishment or, depending on the size of the establishment, a number of rooms or suites. Floor service of all meals and breakfast is offered either throughout the day or in a limited time depending on the size of the establishment.
The floor service staff would normally work from a floor pantry or from a central kitchen with all food and drink reaching the appropriate floor and the required room by lift and in a heated
trolley.
x) Lounge staff / Chef de sale
Lounge staff may deal with lounge service as a specific duty only in a first class establishment. The lounge staff is responsible for the service of morning coffee, afternoon teas, aperitifs and liqueurs before and after both lunch and dinner, and any coffee top ups required after meals. They would be
responsible for setting up the lounge in the morning and maintaing its cleanliness and presentation throughout the day.
xi) Cocktail Bar Staff
The person who works on the cocktail bar must be responsible, well versed in the skills of shaking and stirring cocktails and should have thorough knowledge of all alcoholic and non-alcholic drinks, the ingredients necessary for the making of cocktails and of the licensing laws.
xii) Buffet Assistant / Buffet Chef / Chef de buffet
The chef de buffet is in charge of the buffet in the room, its presentation, the carving and portioning of food and its service. This staff would normally be a member of the kitchen team. The cashier is responsible for the takings of the food and beverage operation. This may include making up bills
from food and drink check or, alternatively, in a cafeteria, for example, charging customers for their selection of items on a tray.
xiii) Counter Assistants
Counter assistants are found in cafeterias where they would stock the counter and sometimes serve or portion food for customers. Duties may also include some cooking of call order items.
xiv) Table Clearers
Table clearers are responsible for clearing tables and trolleys, specially designed for good stacking of crockery, glassware, cutlery, etc.
The trainees work closely with the waiters, fetching orders from the kitchen and the bar, and clearing the side station in a restaurant. They serve water and assist the waiter. They are mainly responsible for the mise-en-place, and stacking the side board with the necessary equipment for service. The
debarrasseur is the ‘learner’, having just joined the food service staff, and possibly wishing to take up food service as a carreer.
vi) Wine Waiter / Sommelier
Wine waiters have an important role to play in reputed establishments. Their job is to take orders for the service of wine and alcoholic beverages and serve them during the meal. Hence they should be knowledgeable about wines that accompany a particular dish and the manner in which they should be served. They should also be aware of the licensing laws prevalent in the city and should be efficient sales persons.
vii) Room Service Waiters / Chef D’etage
Room service waiters work in the room service outlet, serving food and beverage to guests in their rooms. The order is placed by the guest on telephone, and is recorded on a Kitchen Order Ticket (K.O.T). It is then passed on to the duty captain. The duty captain in turn places the order in the
kitchen or the bar, as the case may be. The room service waiter who has been assigned that order, sets the tray according to the food or beverage ordered, picks up and delivers the order when it is ready.
viii) Carver / Trancheur
The carver is responsible for the carving trolley and the carving of joints at the table as required. The carver will plate up each portion with the appropriate accompaniment.
ix) Floor Service Staff / Floor Waiter
The floor service staffs are often responsible for an entire floor in an establishment or, depending on the size of the establishment, a number of rooms or suites. Floor service of all meals and breakfast is offered either throughout the day or in a limited time depending on the size of the establishment.
The floor service staff would normally work from a floor pantry or from a central kitchen with all food and drink reaching the appropriate floor and the required room by lift and in a heated
trolley.
x) Lounge staff / Chef de sale
Lounge staff may deal with lounge service as a specific duty only in a first class establishment. The lounge staff is responsible for the service of morning coffee, afternoon teas, aperitifs and liqueurs before and after both lunch and dinner, and any coffee top ups required after meals. They would be
responsible for setting up the lounge in the morning and maintaing its cleanliness and presentation throughout the day.
xi) Cocktail Bar Staff
The person who works on the cocktail bar must be responsible, well versed in the skills of shaking and stirring cocktails and should have thorough knowledge of all alcoholic and non-alcholic drinks, the ingredients necessary for the making of cocktails and of the licensing laws.
xii) Buffet Assistant / Buffet Chef / Chef de buffet
The chef de buffet is in charge of the buffet in the room, its presentation, the carving and portioning of food and its service. This staff would normally be a member of the kitchen team. The cashier is responsible for the takings of the food and beverage operation. This may include making up bills
from food and drink check or, alternatively, in a cafeteria, for example, charging customers for their selection of items on a tray.
xiii) Counter Assistants
Counter assistants are found in cafeterias where they would stock the counter and sometimes serve or portion food for customers. Duties may also include some cooking of call order items.
xiv) Table Clearers
Table clearers are responsible for clearing tables and trolleys, specially designed for good stacking of crockery, glassware, cutlery, etc.
The following are the various designations with their job specifications in the food and beverage department.
i) Senior Captain or Maitre d’ Hotel
The senior captain has overall responsibility for operations. He prepares the duty charts in consultation with the outlet manager. He oversees the Mise-en-place, cleaning, setting up of the outlet and staffing to ensure that the outlet is always ready for service. The senior captain receives the guests and hands them over to the captain or station holder. He takes orders from guests if the captain is unable to do so. The senior captain should be an able organiser and also be prepared to take over the duties of any member of the staff as and when required.
i) Senior Captain or Maitre d’ Hotel
The senior captain has overall responsibility for operations. He prepares the duty charts in consultation with the outlet manager. He oversees the Mise-en-place, cleaning, setting up of the outlet and staffing to ensure that the outlet is always ready for service. The senior captain receives the guests and hands them over to the captain or station holder. He takes orders from guests if the captain is unable to do so. The senior captain should be an able organiser and also be prepared to take over the duties of any member of the staff as and when required.
ii) Reception Head Waiter
This staff member is responsible for accepting any booking and for keeping the booking diary up-to-date. He / she will reserve tables and allocate these reservations to particular stations. The reception head waiter greets guests on arrival and takes them to the table and seats them.
iii) Captain / Chef de Rang
This position exists in large restaurants, as well as in the food and beverage service department of all major hotels. The captain is basically a supervisor and is in charge of a particular section. A restaurant may be divided into sections called Sations, each consisting of 4 to 5 tables or 20 to 24
covers. A captain is responsible for the efficient performance of the staff in his station. A captain should possess a sound knowledge of food and beverage, and be able to discuss the menu with the guests. He should be able to take a guest's order and be an efficient salesperson. Specialised service
such as gueridon work involves a certain degree of skill, and it is the captain who usually takes the responsibility to do this work.
iv) Waiters / Commis de Rang / Server
The waiters serve the food and beverage ordered by a guest and is part of a team under a station captain. They should be able to perform the duties of a captain to a certain extent and be a substitute for the captain if he is busy or not on duty. They should; also be knowledgeable about all types of food and beverages, so that they can effectively take an order from a guest, execute the order and serve the correct dish with its appropriate garnish and accompaniment. They should be able to efficiently coordinate with the other staff in the outlet.
This staff member is responsible for accepting any booking and for keeping the booking diary up-to-date. He / she will reserve tables and allocate these reservations to particular stations. The reception head waiter greets guests on arrival and takes them to the table and seats them.
iii) Captain / Chef de Rang
This position exists in large restaurants, as well as in the food and beverage service department of all major hotels. The captain is basically a supervisor and is in charge of a particular section. A restaurant may be divided into sections called Sations, each consisting of 4 to 5 tables or 20 to 24
covers. A captain is responsible for the efficient performance of the staff in his station. A captain should possess a sound knowledge of food and beverage, and be able to discuss the menu with the guests. He should be able to take a guest's order and be an efficient salesperson. Specialised service
such as gueridon work involves a certain degree of skill, and it is the captain who usually takes the responsibility to do this work.
iv) Waiters / Commis de Rang / Server
The waiters serve the food and beverage ordered by a guest and is part of a team under a station captain. They should be able to perform the duties of a captain to a certain extent and be a substitute for the captain if he is busy or not on duty. They should; also be knowledgeable about all types of food and beverages, so that they can effectively take an order from a guest, execute the order and serve the correct dish with its appropriate garnish and accompaniment. They should be able to efficiently coordinate with the other staff in the outlet.
The banquet manager supervises the banquet operations, sets up break-down service according to the standards established by the hotel. He co-ordinates the banquet service in conjunction with other departments involved and prepares weekly schedules for the banquet personnel. From the time the bookings are done till the guest settles the bill, the banquet manager is in charge of all aspects of banquet and conference operations. He supervises the work of the banquet sales assistants, who do the banquet bookings and the captains and waiters who perform the food and beverage service activities under his guidance. He is responsible for organising everything right down to the finest detail. The banquet manager projects the budget of the banquets, and works in close coordination with the chef in preparing menus. He is responsible for making an inventory of all the banquet equipment and maintaining a balance between revenue and expenditure. Banquet managers may also be designated as assistant managers in the food and beverage service department.
Bar Manager organises and controls a bar's operations. A bar manager arranges the purchase and pricing of beverages according to budget; selects, trains and supervises bar staff; maintains records
of stock levels and financial transactions; makes sure bar staff follow liquor laws and regulations; and checks on customer satisfaction and preferences.The bar manager should have good interpersonal skills and good memory. He must be efficient and speedy, must enjoy working
with people. He should have good cash-handling skills.
of stock levels and financial transactions; makes sure bar staff follow liquor laws and regulations; and checks on customer satisfaction and preferences.The bar manager should have good interpersonal skills and good memory. He must be efficient and speedy, must enjoy working
with people. He should have good cash-handling skills.
The room service manager reports directly to the food and beverage manager and is responsible for the room service outlet. The room service manager checks that the service rendered to the guests conforms to the standards set by the hotel. He also monitors all operational aspects of the outlet such as service, billing, duty charts, leave and absenteeism, in addition to attending to guest complaints regarding food and service. The room service manager is also in charge of the sales and expenditure budget. The room service is most liable to have problems. The room service manager should ensure coordination among the room service order taker, the captain and the waiter. It is necessary for the room service manager to be present in the outlet during peak hours to interact with other departments of the hotel and to take regular momentums of all the equipment used In the event of the hotel offering valet service and the room service manager takes charge of that service as well .
Restaurant Manager is responsible for directing and supervising all activities pertaining to employee relation, food production, sanitation, guest service and operating profits. The restaurant manager is either the coffee shop manager, bar manager or the specialist restaurant manager. The restaurant manager reports directly to the food and beverage manager and has overall responsibility for the organisation and administration of a particular outlet or a section of the food and beverage service department. The restaurant manager's job includes:
i) Setting and monitoring the standards of service in the outlets.
ii) Administrative duties such as setting duty charts, granting leave, monitoring staff positions, recommending staff promotions and handling issues relating to discipline.
iii) Training the staff by conducting a daily briefing in the outlet.
iv) Playing a vital role in public relations, meeting guests in the outlets and attending to guest complaints, if any.
v) Formulating the sales and expenditure budget for the outlet.
vi) Planning food festivals to increase the revenue and organizing advertisement campaign of the outlet along with the chef and the food and beverage manager.
i) Setting and monitoring the standards of service in the outlets.
ii) Administrative duties such as setting duty charts, granting leave, monitoring staff positions, recommending staff promotions and handling issues relating to discipline.
iii) Training the staff by conducting a daily briefing in the outlet.
iv) Playing a vital role in public relations, meeting guests in the outlets and attending to guest complaints, if any.
v) Formulating the sales and expenditure budget for the outlet.
vi) Planning food festivals to increase the revenue and organizing advertisement campaign of the outlet along with the chef and the food and beverage manager.
The assistant food and beverage manager assists the food and beverage manager in running the department by being more involved in the actual day-to-day operations. This position exists only
in large organisations. An assistant food and beverage manager's job includes:
i) Assisting section heads during busy periods.
ii) Taking charge of an outlet, when an outlet manager is on leave.
iii) Setting duty schedules for all the outlet managers and monitoring their performance.
iv) Running the department independently in the absence of the food and beverage manager.
in large organisations. An assistant food and beverage manager's job includes:
i) Assisting section heads during busy periods.
ii) Taking charge of an outlet, when an outlet manager is on leave.
iii) Setting duty schedules for all the outlet managers and monitoring their performance.
iv) Running the department independently in the absence of the food and beverage manager.
The food and beverage manager is the head of the food and beverage service department, and is responsible for its administrative and operational work. Food and Beverage Managers direct, plan and control all aspects of food and beverage services. Food and Beverage Managers require excellent sales and customer service skills, proven human resource management skills, and good communication and leadership skills. Desired knowledge for this position includes knowledge of the products, services, sector, industry and local area, and knowledge of relevant legislation and
regulations, as well. Hence it is said that food and beverage manager is a Jack-of-all-trades, as the job covers a wide variety of duties.
In general, food and beverage manager is responsible for:
i) Budgeting
The food and beverage manager is responsible for preparing the budget for the department. He should ensure that each outlet in the department achieves the estimated profit margins.
ii) Compiling New Menus and Wine Lists
In consultation with the chef, and based on the availability of ingredients and prevailing trends, the food and beverage manager should update and if necessary, compile new menus. New and updated wine lists should also be introduced regularly.
iii) Quality Control
The food and beverage manager should ensure quality control in terms of efficiency in all service areas, by ascertaining that the staffs are adequately trained in keeping with the standards of the unit.
iv) Manpower Development
The food and beverage manager is responsible for recruitment, promotions, transfers and dismissals in the department. He should hold regular meetings with section heads, to ensure that both routine as well as projected activities of the department go on as planned. He must also give training, motivate and effectively control staff.
regulations, as well. Hence it is said that food and beverage manager is a Jack-of-all-trades, as the job covers a wide variety of duties.
In general, food and beverage manager is responsible for:
i) Budgeting
The food and beverage manager is responsible for preparing the budget for the department. He should ensure that each outlet in the department achieves the estimated profit margins.
ii) Compiling New Menus and Wine Lists
In consultation with the chef, and based on the availability of ingredients and prevailing trends, the food and beverage manager should update and if necessary, compile new menus. New and updated wine lists should also be introduced regularly.
iii) Quality Control
The food and beverage manager should ensure quality control in terms of efficiency in all service areas, by ascertaining that the staffs are adequately trained in keeping with the standards of the unit.
iv) Manpower Development
The food and beverage manager is responsible for recruitment, promotions, transfers and dismissals in the department. He should hold regular meetings with section heads, to ensure that both routine as well as projected activities of the department go on as planned. He must also give training, motivate and effectively control staff.
All types of catering establishments require a variety of staff positions in order to operate effectively and efficiently. The food and beverage service department usually has the largest staff. Able
leadership and supervision is required to effectively direct the department and guide the staff. The personnel in the food and beverage service industry require practical knowledge of operations
as even a small error can cause displeasure to the guest. Coordination of activities of all outlets is essential to provide the guest with quality service at all times. Teamwork is the watchword in
any food and beverage service department. A dedicated and committed team, with able leadership, under ideal working conditions, helps in fulfilling the establishment's ultimate goal of guest satisfaction The important duties and responsibilities of the restaurant
staffs are discussed in this section.
leadership and supervision is required to effectively direct the department and guide the staff. The personnel in the food and beverage service industry require practical knowledge of operations
as even a small error can cause displeasure to the guest. Coordination of activities of all outlets is essential to provide the guest with quality service at all times. Teamwork is the watchword in
any food and beverage service department. A dedicated and committed team, with able leadership, under ideal working conditions, helps in fulfilling the establishment's ultimate goal of guest satisfaction The important duties and responsibilities of the restaurant
staffs are discussed in this section.
Staff organization is basically concerned with matters such as the decision of tasks within the restaurant, position of responsibility and authority and the relationship between them. It helps in
introducing the conceps of span of control, level of management and delegation of power and responsibilities.
introducing the conceps of span of control, level of management and delegation of power and responsibilities.
The side station is also called the dummy waiter or service console. This is a very important piece of furniture in a restaurant. It is used by the service staff for keeping all the service equipment at
one place. It is also used as a landing table for the dishes picked up from the kitchen enroute to the table and the dirty dishes from the guest's table to the wash-up area. For the convenience of the service staff, the side station should be strategically located in a restaurant. The side station should be kept clean and presentable as it can be seen by the guests.
